Learning and Memorizing Latin Declension Endings

Learning and Memorizing Latin Declension Endings For the most part, understudies learn each Latin declension in turn, so there is just one complete arrangement of endings to learn. On the off chance that you dont learn them when they are appointed, it will be more earnestly when you have at least two sets to retain together. The First Three Declensions Are Basic This wont assist you with breezing through your assessments, yet... in the event that for reasons unknown you are stuck learning each of the five Latin declensions on the double, it ought to be to some degree soothing to realize that the fourth and fifth arent that normal, so on the off chance that you know the initial three, you will know unmistakably over 60%. [Note: some normal words are in the fourth and fifth declension.] The accompanying recommendations depend on the possibility that once you have the initial three down, the others will be sufficiently simple. Utilize Your Own Learning Style Particularly for individuals who learn like me a style I accumulate is called material or sensation learning: compose the declensions again and again and over once more. Search for your own examples. At that point think of them again and again and over once more. I used to do this on a blackboard which I could continue eradicating and composing over, in spite of the fact that the perfect would presumably be the old Roman school young men wax secured squares of wood with a pointer. Some may discover taking a gander at cheat sheets or saying the word again and again works better. Perceive the Most Important and Least Used Forms The vocative and locative are uncommon, so learning only the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative, ought to get you through generally Latin. Obviously, these cases have a particular and a plural structure. Know the Equivalent in Your Native Language In light of my absolute first sorrowful day of Latin, it assists with realizing that these cases have counterparts in English. The nominative is the subject and the accusative is the article. The accusative can likewise be the object of a relational word. The ablative is additionally the object of a relational word, and the dative is called backhanded item in English, which implies it will be made an interpretation of as to or for in addition to the thing. Perceive Regularities In Greek and Latin the nominative and accusative plural end in a for neuters.Since the main declension solitary nominative and ablative additionally end in an, it is exceptionally valuable to discover that the primary declension particular ablative has a long imprint or macron over it.The dative and ablative plural for the most part end in will be in the first and second declension and in the third declension (and every so often, the principal), the s is isolated from its vowel by a bu as in the third declension thing hostibuus and the principal declension filiabus.The genitive plural consummation can be thought of as um with prefixes of ar in the main declension and ur in the second declension.A is the vowel of the primary declension and u or o for the second.The accusative particular has the vowel of the declension a/u/e in addition to m. The plural has the vowel an/o/e in addition to s.The nominative and genitive solitary are appeared in the word reference structure, so once the l exical thing is known, the genitive should be obvious.The dative particular for the first declension is equivalent to the genitive singular.In the second and third declensions, the dative and ablative are the equivalent. Compose the declensions again and again and over once more.

Case study of an organization that has experienced or is experiencing Essay

Contextual analysis of an association that has encountered or is encountering a moral predicament - Essay Example Furthermore, regardless of the corporation’s endeavors to tidy up its picture in the worldwide commercial center, for the most part by propelling Fair-exchange items different created nations, as of late Nestl㠩’s notoriety was harmed considerably more by the equivalent ethically indefensible strategies it utilized decades back (Merrett, 2007). Our contextual investigation, be that as it may, will concentrate explicitly on the debate which Nestlã © Corporation brought upon itself decades back during the 1970s by using sketchy showcasing rehearses in offering its items to defenseless moms in creating countries. These practices award a perfect chance to apply regulating moral speculations in an evaluative setting. The standardizing hypotheses of enthusiasm here will be those of deontology’s obligation driven methodology and utilitarianism’s center upon bliss fulfillment as the most elevated level of good activity. This methodology will ideally uncover the spoiled center of Nestlã © Corporation’s past treatment of sound creatures; regardless of whether the case the organization has really changed these techniques through time stays for another conversation. The current conversation, by centering upon deontology and utilitarianism explicitly, will analyze the Kantian ideas of finishes, utilitarian thoughts of significant worth, and the clear absence of good substance backing Nestl㠩’s activities. Nestlã © Corporation goes back to the mid-nineteenth century when American businesspeople got together with Henri Nestlã ©, a food designer, to make what might turn into the highlight of the organization. All through the rest of the nineteenth century, the organization would keep on creating historic food items. All through the twentieth century, the firm proceeded to innovateâ€growing ever bigger through acquisitions and mergers. As of late, Nestl㠩’s line of items has spun around a wide scope of merchandise, including espresso, water, dessert, newborn child nourishments, seasonings, solidified nourishments, refrigerated food sources, pet nourishments, and wholesome items (Nestlã © Corporation). The organization’s expressed

Literary Activism of the U.S. Womans Suffrage Movement

Literary Activism of the U.S. Womans Suffrage Movement Book Riot is featuring ways to be a literary activist this week. See all the posts here. On January 8th, 1868, Susan B. Anthony and George Francis Train launched the first womans suffrage newspaper in the U.S. The Revolution with the slogan Women, Their Rights, and Nothing Less. Between 1878 and 1890, 33 womans suffrage newspapers followed suit. From the beginning of the movement, writing helped women share with other women their outrage at patriarchy  and their struggles for equality. They were  literary activists. But journalism wasnt the only kind of literary activism  early feminists  used. Many turned to novels, poetry, letter writing, and other written forms.  Yet  even with their amazing contributions, it took 72 years after  the Seneca Falls convention before  women finally acquired  the right to vote with the ratification of the 19th amendment. 72 years! In honor of these women, Ive compiled a list of literary activists of the suffrage movement. So  many women contributed their creative energy and literary talents to this movement; this is only a small number. Judith Sargent Murray.  An essayist, playwright, poet, and letter writer, Murrays considered one of the earliest feminists, and her seminal essay On the Equality of the Sexes predates Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Murray asks in her most famous essay: Is it reasonable, that a candidate for immortality, for the joys of heaven, an intelligent being, who is to spend an eternity in contemplating the works of the Deity, should at present be so degraded, as to be allowed no other ideas, than those which are suggested by the mechanism of a pudding, or the sewing the seams of a garment? Pity that all such censurers of female improvement do not go one step further, and deny their future existence; to be consistent they surely ought. Ouch. Read Judith Sargent Murray: A Brief Biography with Documents and Selected Writings of Judith Sargent Murray Lucy Stone.  A powerhouse of womans suffrage, Stones contribution to the movement is considered as significant as Susan B. Anthonys and Elizabeth Cady Stantons, though she  did not always agree with them (particularly over the passing of the 15th amendment).  In terms of literary activism, Stone edited the most important journal of the movement Womans Journal. Founded by Stone and her husband Henry Blackwell in 1870, she edited the journal until she died, but it continued after her, eventually picked up by Carrie Chapman Catt. By  1915, it had thirty thousand readers. This weekly journal kept women across the U.S. informed of  the latest news concerning womens issues and the suffrage movement, from child labor laws to anti-suffrage machinations. In education, in marriage, in religion, in everything, disappointment is the lot of women. It shall be the business of my life to deepen that disappointment in every womans heart until she bows down to it no longer. And you were successful, Lucy Stone. Read  Lucy Stone: An Unapologetic Life Frances Ellen Watkins Harper.  Abolitionist. Aided  the underground railroad. Womans suffragist. Poet. First black woman to publish a short story. Co-founder of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW). In other words, a badass writer extraordinaire. She refused to bow down to any discrimination, and used her words to fight oppression in all its forms. Heres the final stanza of one such poem: No golden weights can turn the scale Of justice in His sight; And what is wrong in woman’s life In man’s cannot be right. From A Double Standard Read Iola Leroy, A Brighter Day, and Discarded Legacy Lillie Devereux Blake. A novelist and journalist,  Blake led  the New York Suffrage Association, among other suffrage organizations. She was the primary contributor to Elizabeth Cady Stantons Womans Bible, and her fiction often subversively questioned gender norms. She believed the womans movement should apply itself to  broader concerns instead of fixating on the right to vote, which at times put her at odds with Susan B. Anthony. We are tired of the pretense that we have special privileges and the reality that we have none; of the fiction that we are queens, and the fact that we are subjects; of the symbolism which exalts our sex but is only a meaningless mockery. Read Fettered for Life  and  Lillie Devereux Blake: Retracing a Life Erased Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin. With the help of  Ida B. Wells, Ruffin  founded the New Era Club, an advocacy group for black women. And for the club, she edited the  first newspaper published by and for black women   The Womans Era. Shes considered one of the leading activists in organizing black women to womans suffrage, and directly addressed the racism of the movement: Too long have we been silent under unjust and unholy charges . . . Year after year southern women have protested against the admission of colored women into any national organization on the ground of the immortality of these women, and because all refutation has only been tried by individual work, the charge has never been crushed . . . It is to break this silence, not by noisy protestations of what we are not, but by a dignified showing of what we are and hope to become, that we are impelled to take this step, to make of this gathering an object lesson to the world. Read Let Nobody Turn Us Around: An African American Anthology Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Remember reading The Yellow Wallpaper? Then you know the power of Gilmans words. If you were  as moved and haunted by that short story as I was, then you should read more. Her 1898 piece of investigative journalism Women and Economics was incredibly important  for twentieth-century feminism. And Carrie Chapman Catt considered her one of the most influential womans rights activists. Only as we live, think, feel, and work outside the home, do we become humanly developed, civilized, socialized. I agree. Read  Women and Economics, The Yellow Wallpaper and Other Stories, and Herland Discover  more fantastic early feminists.

How Radioactive Is Fiesta Ware

Old Fiesta dinnerware was made using radioactive glazes. While the red pottery is noted for its especially high radioactivity, other colors emit radiation. Also, other pottery from the era was glazed using similar recipes, so just about any pottery from the early to mid 20th century  may be radioactive. The dishes are highly collectible, both because of their vivid colors (and because the radioactivity is cool.) But is it really safe to eat off these dishes or are they best thought of as decorative pieces to be admired from afar?  Heres a look at just how radioactive the dishes are today and the risks of using them for serving food. Whats In Fiesta Thats Radioactive? Some of the glazes used in Fiesta Ware contain uranium oxide. Although several colors of glazes contain the ingredient, the red dinnerware is best known for its radioactivity. The uranium emits alpha particles and neutrons. Although the alpha particles dont have much penetrating power, the uranium oxide could leach from the dinnerware, particularly if a dish was cracked (which also would release toxic lead) or the food was highly acidic (like spaghetti sauce). The half-life of uranium-238 is 4.5 billion years, so you can rest assured pretty much all of the original uranium oxide remains in the dishes. Uranium decays into thorium-234, which emits beta and gamma radiation. The thorium isotope has a half-life of 24.1 days. Continuing the decay scheme, the dishes would be expected to contain some protactinium-234, which emits beta and gamma radiation, and uranium-234, which emits alpha and gamma radiation. Just How Radioactive Is Fiesta Ware? There is no evidence that the people who made these dishes suffered any ill effects from exposure to the glazes, so you probably dont have a lot to worry about by just being around the dishes. That being said, scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory who measured radiation from the dishes  found that a standard 7 radioactive red plate (not its official Fiesta name) will expose you to gamma radiation if youre in the same room as the plate, beta radiation if you touch the plate, and alpha radiation if you eat acidic foods off the plate. The exact radioactivity is difficult to measure since so many factors play into your exposure, but youre looking at 3-10 mR/hr. The estimated daily human limit rate is only 2 mR/hr. In case youve wondered just how much uranium that is, researchers estimate a single red plate contains approximately 4.5 grams of uranium or 20% uranium, by weight. If you eat off the radioactive dinnerware  daily, you would be looking at ingesting around  0.21 gram s of uranium per year. Using a red ceramic teacup daily would give you an estimated  annual radiation dose of 400 mrem to your lips and 1200 mrem to the fingers, not counting the radiation from ingesting uranium. Basically, youre not doing yourself any favors eating off the dishes and you certainly dont want to sleep with one under your pillow. Ingestion of uranium could increase the risk of tumors or cancer, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. However, Fiesta and other dishes are a lot less radioactive than many other items produced during the same era. Which Fiesta Ware Is Radioactive? Fiesta commenced commercial sales of colored dinnerware in 1936.  Most colored  ceramics made prior to World War II, including Fiesta Ware, contained uranium oxide. In 1943, manufacturers stopped using the ingredient because the uranium was used for weapons.  Homer Laughlin, the maker of Fiesta, resumed using the  red glaze in the 1950s, using depleted uranium. The use of depleted uranium oxide ceased in 1972. Fiesta Ware manufactured after this date is not radioactive. Fiesta dinnerware made from 1936-1972 may be radioactive. You can buy modern Fiesta ceramic dishes in just about any color of the rainbow, though the modern colors wont match the old colors. None of the dishes contain lead or uranium. None of the modern dishes are radioactive. Sources Buckley et al. Environmental Assessment of Consumer Products Containing Radioactive Material. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. NUREG/CR-1775. 1980. Landa, E. and Councell, T. Leaching of Uranium from Glass and Ceramic Foodware and Decorative Items. Health Physics 63 (3): 343-348; 1992. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement.  Ã‚  Radiation Exposure of the  U.S.  Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources.  Ã‚  NCRP Report N0. 95. 1987. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.  Ã‚  Systematic Radiological Assessment of Exemptions for Source and Byproduct Materials. NUREG 1717. June 2001 Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Fiesta Ware (ca. the 1930s). Retrieved April 23, 2014. Piesch, E, Burgkhardt, B, and Acton, R. Dose Rate Measurements in the Beta-Photon Radiation Field from UO2 Pellets and Glazed Ceramics Containing Uranium. Radiation Protection Dosimetry 14 (2): 109-112; 1986. Vaughn Aubuchon (2006).  Geiger Counter Comparison - Popular Models.  Retrieved April 23, 2014.

Ap Us History Dbq Essay - 786 Words

After the American Revolution, Americans, who had just broken free from the British, completely changed their politics, economy and society. The Founders decided to change how they wanted to run their society, even though, in the end, they went back to a more powerful federal government like Britain. Most people’s daily lives didn’t change much but the principles from the revolution made some try to look for better financial opportunities. Women, slaves, and loyalists were changed a lot in society. Women had more freedoms, some of the slaves were set free, and many loyalists left America. America did not go through much economic change, but it did experience social and political change. Since they had just fought a war to gain their†¦show more content†¦Similarly, in Shay’s Rebellion, Yeoman farmers in Massachusetts, according to Abigail Adams’ letter to Thomas Jefferson, â€Å"were crying out for a paper currency, some for an equal distribution of property† (Doc G). Shay’s Rebellion symbolizes the economic troubles that the poor had to deal with. The social change was the biggest change that happened in America. After the Revolution, the place of women, slaves, and loyalists in society was greatly altered. In order to teach justice and liberty to their children, women were educated in the ideals of Republican Motherhood. In a woodcut of a patriot woman made in 1779, a woman is shown with a rifle and gunpowder horn (Doc A). Some women did play bigger roles in society by going with the fighting soldiers and sometimes even fighting with them in the revolution. However, not all women were satisfied to just go back to the earlier place in society they were at before the war as shown by Molly Wallace who said during her valedictory address in 1792, â€Å"if [taught] to read, why not to speak?† (Doc J). Many American women, like Wallace, sought after advancing their roles in society. But sadly, women suffrage didn’t happen for 140 years. For slaves in some regions, there was a lot of social change. In the years after the revolution, the slave owners in the North practiced manumission, and freed many slaves there. In the South, however, it would take many more years and a Civil War for the slaves to gain their freedom.Show MoreRelatedAp Us History Dbq Essay730 Words   |  3 PagesBesides all the other growing issues from 1700-1800 in American History, there was one rising above all. The enslavement of the African people. While there was much debate about freedom, abolition, and all other things some African-Americans managed to find theirs. From 1775 to 1830 many African-Americans gained freedom by escaping to regions in which slavery wasn’t practiced or by purchasing it if granted while all at the same time the expansion of slavery greatly expanded in the American southRead MoreDBQ for AP US History Essay2093 Words   |  9 PagesStates as a revolutionary nation because it happened so long and we are so culturally different from current day England, we are so ignorant to what had to happen for us to be where we are today, one of the few superpowers in the world, were always getting caught up in the world that surrounds us today Transformation of colonial Virginia DBQ The hardships that the settlers faced were much more intolerable then the â€Å"hardships† we have today, When they first came over, they were stuck on a cramped boatRead MoreAp Us History 2001 Dbq Essay1081 Words   |  5 PagesII. Eisenhower Administration A. Massive retaliation; nuclear weapons prevented USSR attack. B. Containment policy to prevent war/attack. 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JohnRead MoreEssay on The Effects of Imperialism1278 Words   |  6 PagesNAME DATE PERIOD ESSAY DBQ: Effects of Imperialism AP WORLD HISTORY Document-Based Question: Effects of Imperialism Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Documents 1- 13 (The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise.) This question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historical documents. Write an essay that: ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with evidence from the documents. Uses all or all butRead MoreAztec Essay838 Words   |  4 PagesAztec Essay History has been very cruel to the Aztecs. What do you know about the Aztecs? The first thing that probably comes to your mind is human sacrifice, or them being very bloody and gory. Well there is much more to the Aztecs than human sacrifice and wars. The Aztecs were a very advanced and successful civilization. They did perform human sacrifice, but it was a part of their religion, and it was common for cultures to sacrifice humans at the time. Also, all of the things we know todayRead MoreAbraham Lincoln And The Civil War Comparison Essay1108 Words   |  5 Pages Abraham Lincoln, the great president of the United States, is one of the most influential men in the history of America. He is not only the commander-in-chief of the Union army that takes the victory from the Confederacy in the Civil War but also a leader who ends up the existence of slavery and a hero of the United States of America. On the other hand, Nathan Bedford Forrest is the lieutenant general of the Confederate army during the Civil War. 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How I Stumbled Across Universal Literacy Free Essays

I acquired, through being part of many discourses that, eventually, everything connects. I had always heard the same thing, â€Å"Graduate from a good college and find a cent living, and you’ll be happy and successful. † Ha! What a capitalistic, factory- produced, fairy tale to tell impressionable children, I thought. We will write a custom essay sample on How I Stumbled Across Universal Literacy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nope, I was smarter than that. I would be the one to take the road less traveled†to go against the grain and live my own life the way I wanted to. After barely graduating high school with a GEED (or a GEED equivalent actually†¦ ), I took off to LA to become a music-producer. I was going to be big. I learned the trade, worked inside multi- million dollar studios, and formed a band. I had It all figured out and I was going to how everybody that school was for fools. As with everything In life. This Intoxicating success did not last. I began to feel something was missing. Here I was, living the dream that I had imagined for myself, and yet, I didn’t feel much fulfillment. Bills were stacking, the girlfriend was becoming distant, and the excitement of living on my own slowly began to degrade with each passing day. Soon, I could no longer make enough to afford living on my own. And so, I packed up and return home to the Bay Area. Life had defeated me, or so It felt, and I had to reevaluate what I wanted to do with mine. That’s when the unexpected happened: I started going back to school again. I began taking courses seriously and I learned that, not only was I pretty good at most of the stuff, I really liked it. I found that an obscure subject like calculus, could be applied to something even more obscure like computer programming. I learned lessons in swimming that helped me learn how to socialize. Hell, if I took an extensive course on rock-paper-scissors, I could find a hidden lesson that could ring true In another study. I guess you could say I slowly realized how to learn, rather than what to learn. After all, James Paul Gee writes in his paper, Ð’Â «owing† is a matter of â€Å"knowing how to proceed† (â€Å"go on†) in specific social interactions† (Discourse and Coloratura Studies in Reading, 196). Once I realized that I had a plethora of knowledge and life-experiences up my sleeve already, navigating through new areas in life began to be much more comfortable and rewarding. An unexpected part of life had showed up In my life as well: religion. If you had the reasons wrong with the Bible and how there couldn’t possibly be a God. Openness eased my stubbornness. I wanted to â€Å"hear out† what all these people in Christianity had to say. As I attended sermons, I checked all Judgments at the door and listened. I remember the words of a wise teacher I had in high school. He told us to empty our cups†to be ready to fill it with more knowledge. I found that what they preached in church was certainly applicable to somebody not religious at all. Instead of seeing the religion as a brain-washing cult, I began to understand it as a form of volunteer-work. These people were here for help, or to help. How could I speak negatively anymore about something that humans should be doing for each other? I kicked up a sense of humbleness from immersing myself in religious-discourse. It was not only Christianity that I researched. I started pouring my curiosities into Buddhism, Shamanism, and Islam. In all these religions, they teach a similar purpose: healing. Heal yourself, heal others, and heal the Universe. Within you, without you. We are all one, yet amazingly unique. All these â€Å"Faceable†-queues pseudo babble started to make sense to me! Trying new ideas had given me a fulfillment that I Just could not describe. I felt like a scientist, and that my field of study had now been shifted to understanding life. The doors that academic and religious discourse opened for me was like staring into a hallway that had even more interesting and unique doors to be opened. That would never have been available to me had I not looked in their direction and remained open. James Paul Gee puts it very elegantly, â€Å"Analogously, one can deepen the insight by taking successively deeper views of what interpretation means† (Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics, 540). At times, I can still feel dejected, depressed, or Just plain lazy; after having been through these types of situations before, some many times worse, I learned that eventually, everything will urn out okay again†it has to. Physics proves this, religion speaks of this, and there are sayings I’m sure you’ve heard before like, â€Å"the dawn is darkest before the day. Recognizing this helps me deal with the inevitable problems that we all share, and how to stress out in a healthy way. A big part of life for me is music. I would not have traveled to LA with such reckless abandon, were it not for the passion and fuel that music provides me. I identified heavily with the punk-(counter)culture during my teenage years. I still do, but again, with a fresh perspective on t he community. Punks look intimidating to a lot of people. They have messy hair, spikes in every direction on their clothing, and a penchant for destroying things. The irony is, these very people are often the ones who are insecure, bold, and most understanding. Of course, there are exceptions to the rule, and some punks are Just dicks, but being surrounded by a culture of misfits where the majority of members inside felt they were not right for the â€Å"mainstream discourse†, led me to take a look at the way things were established. I saw a lot of paranoia in the community, and I had to face my own. Let me explain. Paranoia, on one end of the spectrum, can lead people to believe things like, in 1969, America staged the whole moon landing. Or that the Pope is really a lizard. But on the other end of the spectrum, complete naivetà ©Ã‚ © can lead people to believe that banks have your best interest in mind, or that marijuana causes death. Somewhere in between them is an inner-balance much like the yin and yang in Buddhism. I learned that I revealed when the people spreading an idea can learn to communicate well enough without offending another’s ideas. We must listen to others as well, and learn to be dead to change our own ideas. How can we do this? How can I be sure that the color red looks the same to me, as it does to you? And more importantly, how can we find a .. That reading and writing cannot be separated from consensus? Gee argues, † speaking, listening, and interacting† (Reading as Situated Language: A Cognitively Perspective, 714). He makes a rather elegant point here in that it is not a matter of â€Å"street smarts† vs†¦ â€Å"Book smarts†, rather, it is a marriage of the two that is necessary for communication. â€Å"Eventually, everything connects† was said by Charles Names, a designer. An app on the phone called, â€Å"Dots, A Game About Connecting†, displays his quote prominently. Each time I play this game, I think about the many ways to accomplish one simple goal: connect the dots. There are ups and downs, lefts and rights. But there are also boxes and zigzags. The more unique ways you find to connect the dots, the easier and more fun the game becomes. Learning many tools from hands-on life- experiences greatly increases the fulfillment I feel for them. They boost my confidence, encourage me to eat healthier, to do well in school, and to live happier with family. You can say Vie stopped rebelling like I used to, and to that, I would have to agree. But I’m also rebelling against ignorance. I’m rebelling against preconceived molds society can place on us, and I’m rebelling against egoism. It’s a never-ending pursuit, but it’s much more preferable to never pursuing. James Paul Gee says, † . .The master discourse is not Just the sum of its parts, it is something also over and above them† (Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics, 537). Perhaps once we’ve connected all the dots, we are still not done. We may never be done, and to me, that is an exciting thought. How to cite How I Stumbled Across Universal Literacy, Papers

School Centre Number Essay Example

School Centre Number Essay My aim is to carryout my own research in order to decide which potato crisp snack should be produced and identify the most appropriate marketing mix to successfully introduce and launch it. Plan of Action: I have broken up my coursework into 20 separate tasks that I will perform over a period of 7 weeks Week 1: We will write a custom essay sample on School Centre Number specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on School Centre Number specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on School Centre Number specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer 1) Firstly I am going to construct a title page. The title Page will have the Title; The introduction and launch of a new Potato Crisp snack. I will include my name, my candidate number and the School centre number for Aquinas. 2) Next I will construct a page with the my aim, which is to carry out my own research into the potato crisp snack, to develop the correct marketing mix etc 3) After that I will draw up a plan of action; a detailed, step-by-step layout of what I will do in my coursework and when I will do it 4) Subsequently I will make a list of how I will contact each manufacturer/ advertising company. 5) I will then state and explain why I chose the methods I did to contact the manufacturers Week 2: 6) I will assemble a list of manufacturers and advertising companies to write to, to get the information regarding the marketing of the potato crisp snack. 7) I will contact the companies/ advertising companies on the list to get the information needed, using methods such as email. 8) From the information I receive I will sort out the relevant and irrelevant information Week 3: 9) I will briefly describe the marketing mix. Then I will analyse the product, the price, the promotion and the place, regarding the marketing of the potato snack. 10) I shall summarise the information that I receive from the manufacturers and advertising companies. 11) I will now point out the advantages of using a questionnaire, and give an example of such a questionnaire. Reasons why a questionnaire is a useful option for gathering marketing information, in comparison to other methods, will also be included. I will also include a method to use for sampling Week 4: 12) I will explain the reason behind the questions in my questionnaire 13) I will then place these results in a database 14) The results form the questionnaire will be explained, and the effect they have on the marketing of the snack 15) At this point I will analyse advertising costs, using the information that I have gathered Week 5: 16) I will then compose a spreadsheet showing the advertising costs. I will analyse the spreadsheet, (Also pointing out the usefulness of using spreadsheets and other I.C.T technology and its advantages). Week 6: 17) I will construct a conclusion, to back up my analysis, and an evaluation relating to my initial aim. 18) I will make recommendations for the future on how this product could be developed/ improved Week 7: 19) I will write up a bibliography of references used in this assignment. 20) Finally, I will put together an appendix of letters. Emails that I sent and/or received and a draft of the questionnaire I used in my survey. I shall also include any other relevant information gathered The Marketing Mix: The Marketing Mix is made up of four factors; Product Price Promotion Place Product: Products are the goods and/ or services provided to customers by businesses and are defined as the commodity, which the business is offering for sale. Each product has a life cycle and goes through six Separate Stages; Research and development Introduction or launch Growth Maturity Saturation Decline 1) Research and Development: A company would carry out research and development before a product is ever sold or even produced. A prototype could possibly be made to test how effective the product is. Here, no profit is made so the development of the product can prove very expensive for the business, depending on how long this stage lasts. 2) Introduction or Launch At this stage, the producers focus on the marketing and promotion of the product(s). Depending on how much the customers want it, sales could be slow, and profit still may not be achieved, as the costs of research and development will still have to be paid. 3) Growth Sales increase and previous expenses will start to be covered at this stage. Profits will grow, as the product would have gained a place in the market. Competition can be an big issue to a business at this stage. 4) Maturity By now the product would have fully established a place in the market. Sales levels will be maintained; competition is a concern at this stage, but not to the extent that it was at the stage of Growth. 5) Saturation This is when sales are at their maximum. No new customers can be found so profits cannot increase. New competitors are no longer a threat. 6) Decline At this stage, product sales have fallen and therefore it is either less or un-profitable. The product is taken off the market. A second product is then prepared to replace the old one. The length of the products life cycle usually depends on the product itself. Some strategies are used to extend the products life cycle, e.g.: * Reducing the price to attract more sales; * Altering the packaging to give a more persuasive image; * Exporting the product to aim at a wider market; Legal constraints have been passed in order to protect the consumer and ensure high quality of the products they purchase, e.g.: * Sale and Supply of Goods and Services Act 1994 * Consumer Protection Act * Food Safety Order 1991 Price: Depending on the type of product being sold, there are many pricing policies that a business might use to sell it: * Market Led * Cost based * Skimming * Penetration * Destruction Pricing Market Led- This accepts the price the competitors are charging for a product and prices it similarly to them Cost Based This is a simple formula of: Total Costs + Profit Sales Skimming This is when a product is placed at a high price, as there is no competition initially. This technique is usually used with a new and/or unique product. Penetration This is when a product is priced low in order to break into a competitive market and attract regular costumers. Used for a product with a lot of competition. Initial price will not always make a profit for the business. Price will be increased when product has a steady place in the market. Destruction Pricing Is usually a technique by large companies to put smaller establishments out of business; Price is reduced dramatically to lure the competitors customers from them and put them out of business. Markets may also engage in a Price wars When this happens some companies drop prices to secure sales and encourage purchases of other products. There are many factors that will affect the price of a product, and it is imperative for a business to sell their product at a price that will cover all the expenses in manufacturing it, such as: * Cost of production * Profit making * Competition * Price the Market could bear * Season of the year * Quantity of stock held Demand in pricing is defined as the quantity of goods which will be bought at a given price. There are many factors that would affect the demand for products e.g.: * The price being charged for the goods by the business * Customers tastes/ interests * Potential customers level of income * Price of other goods * Advertising * Credit rates Promotion: Promotion is the Process by which a company inform potential or existing customers about their products and encourage them to buy those products. Methods of Promotion: Sponsorship, Public relations, Advertising and Sales promotion are all methods of promotion: * Sponsorship; e.g. of sporting events, charity events or school events, where the business gives said event a set amount of capital, and n exchange they display the name o the business, a new product etc. * Public relations; Is when the publics awareness of the company is raised and the company is seen as generous, e.g. contributing cash to famine relief or war-torn areas * Advertising; Is usually used o introduce a new product and encourage sales, it can also be used o remind the pubic about an existing product and boost falling sales, if a business is struggling in a certain segment of the market, advertising can be used to boost sales in that particularly area, to target a new segment of the market, or to provide information about new/ existing products or events * Sales promotion; This is used to persuade the customer to purchase the product. Examples of sales promotion could be; Offers, (like buy one get one free), Discounts (10% off etc) Free samples with things like food, Loss leaders (reducing price of a product to boost initial, or falling sales even if a temporary loss to the company is likely) Free gifts with the product, (e.g. cars and free insurance, Mac Donalds adding toys to happy meals etc) ; Price reductions ; Coupons/ Vouchers ; After sales Service (E.g. servicing deals for cars, guarantees etc Place: Getting the goods to a place where they are going to sell most successfully. This means that manufacturers must consider not just where to sell their product to maximise profit, but also how to get the product to that place in good condition. They must take into account: * The most appropriate sales outlet for that product * The most appropriate channel of distribution to use * The most appropriate method of transportation for that particular product. Decisions about the type of sales outlet to use will depend on the type and value of the goods being sold and the socio-economic or cultural class of the area E.g. there is no point in placing very expensive goods in a poor area where people could not afford to buy them. There are four main parties in distribution: * Manufacturer/ Producer * Wholesaler * Retailer * Consumer To gather my information, I decided to contact the leading potato crisp distributors in Northern Ireland; Walkers, Tayto and KP. I also gather information on advertising costs on the U.T.V Website. The reason I chose Walkers, Tayto and KP respectively is that they are the three biggest producers of potato crisps, and the reson I chose to research advertising costs on UTV is that it has the greatest penetration though out Northern Ireland. With n impressive 34% of peak rime viewing being UTV and a 100% coverage in Northern Ireland I was only able to receive information form Walkers, Tayto an UTV. I have examined Taytos and Walkers information using the 4 Ps: Product: Taytos information about their products is collected by a marker research company that they employ called A. C. Nielsen C. Ltd. This information is then used to support them with their marketing strategies. An example of how this works in practice would be a situation like; if Tayto are aware of an increase in demand for a particular flavour of crisp, they may choose to promote their own brand in order to raise their share of this particular part (or segment) of the market. Tayto also use a method involving school children. This involves the children filling out questionnaires etc after trying some of the products that Tayto have to offer. The questionnaires can relate to flavour, texture etc of the potato snack being tested. Tayto have a third method of market research also; when they give out factory tours, the tourists are given a free sample of a snack and asked to give their opinion, this method is particularly good at the launch of a new product. Walkers do not hire external businesses to conduct theyre research, they have an internal Research and Development Department. This department talks to the customers regularly to identify what is important to them, or what changes they would like to be made etc, and then implement the findings with their products and factories. The Research and Development Department work closely with the Marketing and Sales Department to make sure that all developments benefit the customer and the business. Consumer testing is a very significant part of theyre research. Once Walkers have identified an opportunity in the market for a new product, research and development is given a brief to develop this product. They will conduct consumer testing to determine the optimum texture, flavour, size, colour etc of the snack. Testing several to identify the consumers preference does this. Once the final product has been tested and approved by a panel of customers, Research and Development will define how it can be produced in the factory. Marketing carry out final consumer testing prior to launch, which includes product and packaging design preference. Price The cost of the raw materials, packaging and overheads determines the price that Tayto need to charge for their products. Other factors, which influence the price of a product, are competitors price and the target market. If the target market is the adult population, the price of the product may be higher and Tayto will be able to spend more on packaging and advertising the product, however, if the product is to be targeted at children, the price will be lower and Tayto will have to spend less on packaging and advertising. Walkers claim to keep their products at a high quality and competitive price by leveraging. They do this by buying large quantities of raw materials, which enables them to negotiate competitive prices. The savings are re-invested into the business and passed on to the customer. The Finance Department at Walkers are responsible for ensuring Walkers manufacture and sell their products at the lowest cost possible. Promotion: Tayto use a variety of ways to promote their products e.g. advertising Agencies, which are used for promotions on television, radio, newspapers and billboards. Television advertising is very expensive but you can reach millions and target people who watch particular programmes, for example, by six thirty pm on a Thursday evening 75% of adults will have viewed UTV and 1.3 million people in Northern Ireland watch UTV each week. Radio is cheaper and you can still target listeners of particular programmes, but it is sound only and audiences are usually smaller. Newspapers know a lot about their readership so it is easy to target effectively and will often be read more than once by more than one person. Tayto have also developed other forms of advertising; they have product tasting in stores where customers get to try their products, (new or existing), they sponsor many charitable/ sporting events, they offer tours of the, Tayto castle, where customers get to see where and how theyre product is made and receive free samples. They also employ promotional vehicles to transport theyre goods, e.g. lorries with the smiling face of, Mr. Tayto, on the side, Vending machines with the same corporate symbol and they have advertising on the internet also. Different methods of advertising are used at various times of the year, for example, Tayto focus on outdoor advertising during March to September. The advertising methods at this time are billboards, shows and exhibitions for example, The Agricultural Show at Balmoral. From September to March however, advertising is focused on indoors such as TV, radio and sampling within stores. All other types of advertising and promotions are still carried on throughout the year and at different times Tayto use promotions like 2 for 1 offers and 50% extra free to entice customers. Walkers have used the famous footballer Gary Lineker, to promote their products for many years now, and once changed theyre salt and vinegar crisp packaging to read Salt and Lineker They picked Gary Lineker because he is one of Britains favourite celebrities, he is an ex-Leicester City football player and Walkers are also sponsors of the Leicester City Football Club. Walkers use other means of advertising such as radio, cinema and posters. Walkers Doritos are Sponsors of the ITV Movie Premiere, which communicates with a mass market. Walkers recognise the importance of working alongside retailers of all sizes to ensure snacks gain the visibility needed to drive sales. Savoury snacks are often bought on impulse therefore, good merchandising is very important I also obtained the advertising costs on U.T.V via their website in the form of a table of sample costs by length for advertising on UTV. TIME BAND PROGRAMMES ADULT TVR 10 20 30 0930-1729 Jeremy Kyle This Morning ITV Lunchtime News Kids Time 3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½200 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½250 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½300 1730-1800 UTV Live 6 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½370 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½500 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½620 1801-1859 ITV News 14 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½850 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1150 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1450 1900-1959 Mon,Wed,Fri Emmerdale Coronation Street 25 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1500 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2000 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2500 1929-1959 Tue and Thur UTV Local Programmes 12 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½730 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½980 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1220 2000-2159 The Bill 14 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½850 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1150 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1450 2200-2229 Rosemary and Thyme Poirot 8 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½480 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½650 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½820 2230-2330 ITV News 5 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½310 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½410 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½510 This is a standard day-to-day sample table of costs for advertising however there are many other factors that can affect the cost of advertising on television, e.g. Time of year. Also when it comes to advertising on television, there are many factors that a business must consider when advertising. Target audience is a huge factor in television advertising costs, this is also linked to time of day and possibly even time of year, for example if the advertisement is aimed at school kids, advertising during the morning or early afternoon, would be a waste of money as although the advertising cost is less, most of the children who the advertisement is aimed at would be in school. I also acquired a diagram of the penetration of UTV in Northern Ireland: Place: Tayto use their own fleet of Vans and Lorries to distribute their products from the manufacturer to the retailer and to the wholesaler. They also supply directly to the consumer using vending machines, this is also a clever method of advertising as the vans are marked externally with Taytos name and corporate symbol (Mr. Tayto) Tayto also supply their products through the internet where they get hundreds of orders from America and Japan requesting their crisps. Walkers products are produced at six factories, which are located throughout the UK and reach the customers via seven distribution centres located throughout the country. Walkers products are transported around their distribution network 24 hours a day and then on to the customer by a fleet of more than two hundred vehicles. Walkers employ approximately 400 staff who are responsible for the sales in supermarkets, newsagents, independent grocers and petrol forecourts. Walkers help retailers to increase their sales by giving advice on products and the range of display equipment available. This can maximise the impact on the customer therefore increasing the sales of the products. Questionnaire: Please tick only one answer box on each of the following questions; Or fill in answer where necessary in the spaces provided: Please insure your answers are honest and accurate, to the best of your knowledge 1) To what age bracket do you belong? 5-10 11-20 21-30 31- 45 46-60 60 and over 16.6% 16.6% 16.6% 16.6% 16.6% 16.6% 2) What Gender are you? Male Female 50% 50% 3) Do you eat Potato Crisp Snacks? Yes No 100% 0% If your answer to previous question was, no, please do not fill out any more questions. 4) How often would you say you eat potato crisp snacks? Everyday 19.4% 3-5 times a week 33.4% 2-3 times a week 27.8% Once a week 19.4% Other 0% 5) What is your preferred potato crisp brand? Tayto? 44.4% Walkers 16.8% KP 27.8% Golden Wonder? 5.5% Doritos 5.5% Other 0% 6) What is your preferred potato crisp flavour? Salt and vinegar 22.2% Cheese and onion 16.7 Smoky Bacon 11.1% Roast Chicken 8.3% Steak and onion 5.6% Prawn Cocktail 8.3% Chilli 11.1% Cheese 5.6% Sour Cream and Onion 11.1% Other 7) Which size of potato Crisp container would you be more likely to purchase? Large, Multi-pack bag(s) 33.3% Medium, single sale bag(s) 33.3% Large, single sale bag(s) 22.2% Small Cardboard Tube(s) 8.4% Large Cardboard tube(s) 2.8% Other 0.0% 8) What are your favourite shapes/ types of Crisp? Regular 50.0% Crinkle/ Rough cut 25.0% Round 2.7% Puffs 13.9% French fries 2.7% Other 2.7% 9) Where do you usually buy your crisps? Supermarket 11.1% Vending machine 16.7% Corner store 11.1% Garage 13.8% Other 2.8% 10) What usually motivates you to buy your potato crisps? Impulse 30.6% Health Consciousness 11.2% Offers/ Freebees 19.4% Competitions 11.1% Free Samples 8.3% Celebrity endorsement 2.8% No reason 16.7% Other 0.0% 11) Which media would you respond best too? Television 52.8% Billboards 19.4% Radio 11.1% Movie Theatre 13.9% Newspapers/ Magazines 2.8% Other 0.0% 12) What, in your opinion is a reasonable price for a standard, medium sized, single sale bag of Crisps? 21p 25p 22.1% 26p 30p 11.1% 31p 35p 33.3% 36p 40p 16.7% 41p 45p 2.7% 46p + 11.1% 13) What kind of packaging material do you prefer? Foil 11.1% Paper 11.1% Plastic/ Cellophane 16.7% Cardboard tube 61.1% Other 0.0% 14) Which flavour(s) of crisps would you associate with the following colours? Dark Blue Light Blue? Dark Green Light Green 63% of people related colours Red? to walkers Style of packaging Orange Purple? Pink? Black White Yellow Brown 15) What do you think of new Ideas in crisps? Open and willing to try them 19.44% Weary, would be more likely to buy your usual brand, style or flavour of crisps 80.56% Questionnaire Rationale: Gender? I asked this question to segment my market into equal parts of males and females. To gather stratified and therefore more accurate and relevant information Age? I asked this question to further segment my market. I wanted to ascertain whether, for example, female teenagers eat more crisps than 31-45 year old men; this would effect where and when, and for how much I sell my new product. Do you eat potato crisp snacks? I asked this question to try and determine how big my target market is. How often do you eat potato crisp snacks? I asked this question to find out how popular crisps are, i.e. how many I should aim towards the certain age groups, genders etc. Favourite brand of crisps? I asked this question to determine who the main competitors in the market are, and find out how many people like certain brands. Also I will look into why they like them. Favourite flavour? I asked this question to determine what flavour(s) I would need to make in order for my product to be a success Preferred container? I asked this question to see what container people preferred, as the packaging can greatly influence the buyer for impulse buying etc. Where do you usually buy your crisps? I asked this question to determine place of purchase so I would know what destinations are popular for consumers to buy at; and I would know what types of places to distribute my product. What sales promotion techniques appeal to you? I asked this question to find out what offers appeal to people the most, so that I would have some idea of what works when it comes to promotion. What method of advertising appeals to you the most? I asked this question to determine what method of advertising would entice people the most. How much are you willing to pay for a standard packet of crisps? I asked this question to find out roughly what pricing bracket ideally I would be selling my product at in order to maintain good sales Preferred packaging? I asked this question to find out what colour etc, consumers would like the packaging to be so that I could determine the best packaging for my snack Preferred shape of crisp? I asked this question to ascertain whether crinkled or smooth etc are preferred. This would affect how I make my potato snack, going with the most popular shape in order to boost sales What colours do you associate with certain flavours? I asked this in order to determine what colours I should have certain flavours of my crisps in order to aid the purchase of the product. Are you open to new ideas? I asked this to see if my product is likely to be successful upon launch Conclusion Product From my questionnaire I find that salt and vinegar is the clear favorite when it comes to flavour of crisps. I will therefore make more salt and vinegar than other flavours. The next popular flavours were cheese and onion, chili and sour cream and onion. I will make slightly more of these flavors than the other flavours e.g. smoky bacon, Salt and vinegar 22.2% Cheese and onion 16.7 Smoky Bacon 11.1% Roast Chicken 8.3% Steak and onion 5.6% Prawn Cocktail 8.3% Chilli 11.1% Cheese 5.6% Sour Cream and Onion 11.1% This way, less money will be spent on flavours that wont sell as well e.g. Cheese. The crisps themselves will be sold in mostly multi-packs for large stores and supermarkets and medium single sale bags for shops; these will include a range of flavours in proportion to my results on preferred flavours etc. Foil bags will be the containers as they are the most popular. The other types of packaging will not be produced initially, as more machinery and raw materials will be required to produce it. This will save on cost, an according to my results will maximize sales. However, over time if the product proves successful, the tube and share-size packaging may be produced- but it will only make up a total of no more than 20% of the production, as they are not potentially as great sellers as the medium size single sale and multi-packs. Also, as a small quantity of this packaging will be made, only the flavours, which people preferred with this packaging, will be sold, which will be salt and vinegar, chili, smoky bacon and sour cream and onion. According to the questionnaire, there is no other packaging preferred. However as for the actual colour of the packaging, it will be in correlation to the results of the questionnaire. The majority of people in the questionnaire associated colours with the colours on walkers packaging, I will therefore follow the trend of Walkers colour of packaging as they were the most popular The results are as follows: Cheese and Onion- Yellow Roast Chicken- Orange Ready Salted- Red Prawn Cocktail- Pink Salt and Vinegar- Green Barbecue Beef- Green Smokey Bacon- Brown Pickled Onion- purple The shape of my potato crisp snack will be the traditional shape to begin with, as it is the overall preferred shape and less money will be spent on specialized machinery, which will produce the different shaped snacks; Also, as my product will be new to the market, money will have to be saved to cover the fixed costs. When profits are gained, special editions of the potato crisp snack will be launched, e.g. fries; the flavour of this new shape will be proportional to the amount of people who preferred this shape and a particular flavour, which is salt and vinegar. Depending on the success of the new shape, the product may be sold for a limited time only. The other shapes will be rejected, as they are less preferred, unless future market research proves otherwise. Price The average price of a 35g packet of crisps will be 35p. However, in order to gain entrance into an already existing market I will use penetration pricing. As the results from the questionnaire show, there is very strong competition in the market, with Tayto and Walkers being the leaders. However, I will price my product low enough to attract customers but also to gain enough money to break even. After sales have improved, I will price my product a bit higher to gain more money to allow growth to occur, most probably competitive pricing. Promotion My main methods of promotion will be sales promotion- where the products lower price will be described as special purchases- and advertising. Advertising via television would attract the most customers according to the questionnaire. Through UTV, my product would be advertised between 9.30am and 5.29pm, as that is when the cost is lower, although it would be viewed less than any other time. This will ensure that sales will go up slightly. As advertising on billboards and newspapers is very expensive and, as the questionnaire results show, not as effective as TV, my product would only be promoted that way as my product gains more recognition and more money is coming into the business. Place My product will be sold in corner shops as single packets and in supermarkets as multi-packs. The channel of distribution is as follows: Manufacturer to Retailer to Consumer As my product is new on the market, retailers may not recognize it in wholesalers and therefore I believe it is wiser to advertise it to the retailer directly. However, once my product gains more credibility, it may be sold to wholesalers also. Distribution will be done by vans which will leased by the business, as they are a cheaper than distributing by freight trains and the product will only be sold within the country initially anyway. Sources of information: I used email and the Internet to contact walkers, KP and Tayto, but having only heard back from Tayto and walkers. This was the information I analysed. I also produced 36 identical questionnaires which I distributed to a stratified sample of ages and genders and analysed these results. I analysed all of these results using the four Ps, to great effect, and I also produced an excel spreadsheet of my results for the questionnaire From Tayto I went to the following website: http://www.tayto.com/flash.html From here I opened Contact us/Find us. This was easy to do and proved very effective I also attended a trip to the Tayto castle with my business studies class, wherein we were told lot of useful information about Tayto, and we were also informed about the website I mentioned above, which proved to be of great use in m research. Walkers sent me out information via post, this was also easy as all I had to do was type in my details and the information was sent right to my door. I obtained my information on the advertising costs for U.T.V from: http://www.utvplc.com/advertising.asp?sub=svsublk=avr These methods proved very effective. They were quick and efficient, and although KP did not offer any information, U.T.V Tayto and Walkers information was made very easily accessible to me, so I believe the methods of email and post are the most effective as I was able to put them to great use For advertising, I also contacted some local newspapers and the Belfast Telegraph, but I decided that the most effective form of advertising would be on television (U.T.V) Other sources of information included textbooks such as Business studies By Alan Anderson, and information from My Business Studies Teacher.

The Untouchables, a true taste of 1920s prohibition America Essays

The Untouchables, a true taste of 1920s prohibition America Essays The Untouchables, a true taste of 1920s prohibition America Paper The Untouchables, a true taste of 1920s prohibition America Paper as gangsters from rival gangs riddled each other with bullets, and deftly defied the law through slightly, less-than-honorable techniques, the 1930s were plagued with corruption on the municipal scale. Many bootleggers secured their business by bribing the authorities, namely federal agents and persons of high political status (Bowen, pg160). Many law enforcement agencies were brought into suspected areas of illegal alcoholic activity to put a stop on these banned doings. Director Brian De Palma portrayed one account of these actions in his 1987 movie, The Untouchables. The film centered on straight-arrowed cop Eliot Nesss obsession to end the infamous Capone crime syndicate in Chicago. Recruiting the help of a group of law enforcement officers who were unable to be bribed, and thus untouchable, Ness finally stopped the gangster boss on the grounds of income tax evasion. But was this movie as historically accurate as one would expect? By examining some of the elements of the movie, the true historical colors of the film might shine through. Through the use of cinematography, setting, as well as knowledge of actual events, the accuracy of this historical movie can fairly be judged. Brian De Palmas use of period specific sets really helps the viewer get the feeling they were there in the 1930s, this is achieved by filming on location and showing the eccentricity of 1920s and 1930s through architecture. One fantastic scene is where there is an overview shot of La Calle Street Canyon in Chicago when Sean Connerys character, Wallace, leads Kevin Costners character, Eliot Ness, to one of Capones booze cellars across the street. The scene displays huge, almost monolithic, buildings and rows of period cars. This was important in setting the stage of the film thus giving the viewer a sense of realism. Another important scene includes the descending of Al Capone and his men in the hotel that he considered being the headquarters of his gangster consortium. Almost everything in the scene has a golden aura to it, sharply contrasting to the prevalent power of Scarface himself. Overall, the amount of money they spent to surround the actors with scenes and memorabilia of the 1930s really paid off and made for a great film visually historic. When you see Capone leave the hotel, its almost like he was an iconic figure, the media gave him the attention as they would a movie star. Children would mimic him in the streets; many other gangsters and outlaws held this iconic status, mass murderers such as Billy the kid would also get similar media attention. Al Capone himself enjoyed a celebrity status in Chicago and was a master at public relations, Capone saw to it that the press was friendly to him and never missed a chance to play up his donations to a charitable group. To the people of Chicago he was a hero who saved them from the oppression of the people for prohibition. Al Capones popularity was incredible; this is because he was providing a banned alcohol for an alcohol hungry people, oblivious to the atrocities being caused by the underground mobs. Normal everyday people were becoming criminals, criminal groups organize around the steady source of income provided by laws against victimless crimes such as consuming alcohol (Thorton, 13). Because alcohol was no longer legally available, there was a sudden increase in crime, the public turned to gangsters to obtain alcohol, as a result the amount of money to be made caused massive rivalry between gangs, the Untouchables gives you great examples of this rivalry, by giving the viewer graphic scenes of gang violence. The profit motive caused over four hundred gang related murders a year in Chicago alone (Bowen, 175). One of the most gruesome and remembered gangster shoot-outs of all time occurred on Valentines Day, 1929, which was portrayed excellently in the film, because of business differences, Capone had his henchman, Machine Gun Jack McGurn plot the murder of the OBanions, led by Bugs Moran. McGurn staged a delivery of alcohol to Moran at a warehouse and had his gang members impersonate police officers and pretend to raid the transaction. With a sweep of machine gun fire, McGurn killed all that were inside. Capone had a solid alibi, being in Miami at the time, and no convictions were ever made. This event is an example of how prohibition fueled gang warfare and increased the crime rate in America (Bowen, 175). While the film is based on a real aspect of the hunt for Capone in Prohibition-era Chicago, the writer and director deviated from the subjects historical accuracy. While they got the major concepts of the untouchables correct, there were facts altered to benefit the storyline. First off, Eliot Ness is portrayed as a family man and didnt come from Chicago, whereas he was actually from Chicago and had no immediate family, yet both were key elements to Nesss character. Another important fact altered for the film was that Nesss original 10-man team of untouchables suffered no causalities and the fact that two of the most beloved men of the group were killed in the movie which adds to the idea of dramatizing history. Perhaps the biggest flaw of the film comes at the end. In the very climax of the film, after Nesss rooftop chase with gangster, Frank Nitti, Ness pushes Nitti over the edge of a building ending his life in another of De Palmas notoriously bloody scenes and, as expected, followed up by an aerial view of the impact. The flaw in this series of events is that Nitti was not killed by Ness. In fact, Nitti was Capones successor and lived a further 12 years as head of the illustrious crime organization. However there were also some almost unbelievable yet accurate historical events as well. One of the most famous and memorable scenes from The Untouchables was the baseball bat attack by Capone upon three suspected traitors, though slightly reworked, added to the portrayal of Capone as a dangerous criminal. So while some events were completely changed for Hollywood, some events were simply shown in their entirety adding to the historical authenticity of the film. If not totally accurate The Untouchables still gives the viewer a taste of America during Prohibition. The films convey through graphic scenes, the violence caused by prohibition and also the failings of prohibition, Prohibition did not achieve its goals. Instead, it added to the problems it was intended to solve (Thorton, pg15). The movie also gets across to the viewers the time period. Looking at De Palmas use of cinematography, setting, and the knowledge of actual events from The Untouchables lets viewers see the film in a new, more historically critical light.

35 Fossil Words

35 Fossil Words 35 Fossil Words 35 Fossil Words By Mark Nichol Some of the most intriguing words in the English language are what linguists call fossil words, so named because they are artifacts from another era and survive only in isolated usage. Here is a list of some of our language’s fossil words with definitions and the idiomatic phrases in which they appear: 1. Ado: bother over unimportant details (â€Å"without further ado† or, more rarely, â€Å"much ado about nothing†) 2. Amok (or amuck): in an uncontrolled manner (â€Å"run amok†) 3. Bandy: hit, pass, or toss around, or discuss lightly or employ off-handedly (â€Å"bandy about†); bowed (â€Å"bandy-legged†) 4. Bated: restrained or deducted (â€Å"wait with bated breath†) 5. Batten: lumber for flooring or for sealing or strengthening a joint or a flexible object such as a sail (â€Å"board and batten†); to provide or fasten with battens, or to fasten (â€Å"batten down the hatches†) 6. Beck: summons (â€Å"at (one’s) beck and call†) 7. Bygones: what has passed or is in the past (â€Å"let bygones be bygones†) 8. Craw: stomach or crop (â€Å"sticks in (one’s) craw†) 9. Deserts: excellence or worth, or what is deserved or merited (â€Å"just deserts†) 10. Dint: force or power (â€Å"by (sheer) dint of†) 11. Dudgeon: indignation (â€Å"high dudgeon†) 12. Eke: accomplish or get with difficulty (â€Å"eke out†) 13. Fettle: state of health or fitness (â€Å"in fine fettle†) 14. Fro: away or back (â€Å"to and fro†) 15. Hale: sound or very healthy (â€Å"hale and hearty†) 16. Hither: near or adjacent, or to this place (â€Å"hither and yon†) 17. Immemorial: before memory or tradition (â€Å"time immemorial†) 18. Jetsam: what is cast overboard from a ship (â€Å"flotsam and jetsam†) distinguished from flotsam, a word denoting what floats from the wreckage of a ship (that term is used elsewhere than in the phrase â€Å"flotsam and jetsam† and so is not listed separately here) 19. Ken: range of knowledge, perception, or understanding, or view or range of vision (â€Å"beyond (one’s) ken†) 20. Kith: friends, neighbors, or relatives (â€Å"kith and kin†) 21. Loggerhead: blockhead (â€Å"at loggerheads,† meaning blocked, or stalled, by stubbornness); also, a type of turtle 22. Mettle: quality, or vigor or strength of, temperament (â€Å"test (one’s) mettle†) 23. Neap: a weak tide (â€Å"neap tide†) 24. Offing: the near future (â€Å"in the offing†); also, the deep ocean as seen from the shore 25. Petard: a container of explosives for breaching or breaking a barrier (â€Å"hoist by (one’s) petard†) 26. Shebang: everything that is pertinent (â€Å"the whole shebang†) 27. Shrift: confession (â€Å"short shrift,† with the idea that a condemned person is given little time to confess sins) 28. Sleight: stratagem, dexterity (â€Å"sleight of hand†) 29. Thither: more remote, or to that place (â€Å"hither and thither†) 30. Turpitude: depravity (â€Å"moral turpitude†) 31. Ulterior: beyond what is openly expressed (â€Å"ulterior motive†); also, farther, or more distant, or what is on the farther side 32. Vim: robustness (â€Å"vim and vigor†) 33. Wreak: bring about or cause (â€Å"wreak havoc†) 34. Wrought: manufactured, ornamented, or shaped, or excited (â€Å"wrought iron†) 35. Yore: the far past (â€Å"days of yore†) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Idioms About Legs, Feet, and Toes15 Types of DocumentsConversational Email

Describe an imaginary place that young children would enjoy.Write the Essay

Describe an imaginary place that young children would enjoy.Write the description so readers can visualize as they read - Essay Example The maids bring them whatever they wish for. They take the children to swings and play games with them. The garden is followed by a huge row of palaces made of pearls and gold. They are made for kind and gentle people to live in who are all dressed in crimson. As children pass by them, they welcome them and offer them to come into their palaces. The palaces have jewels scattered all over and the children jump and play with joy. The sky is full of colors, and there are rainbows of striking colors which no one has seen in this world. The children can touch the rainbows and climb over it waiving at each other with amusement. Lovely parrots and pigeons fly over them singing songs in their sweet voices. The children then jump over the soft clouds which offer them cozy beds made up of water vapors, on which the children lie down to take the sweetest sleep they can ever get.

Does Media Bias Cause Islam to be Misunderstood Research Paper

Does Media Bias Cause Islam to be Misunderstood - Research Paper Example The research paper "Does Media Bias Cause Islam to be Misunderstood" analyzes if Islam is misunderstood because of the media biases. And Islamophobia, as can be seen in the western media portrayal of Islam and Muslims, can be traced back to the mid-part of the 20th century – sometime in the 60s and 70s. For some reason, this negative portrayal has not changed over the decades. Derogatory terms such as â€Å"camel jockey† obviously show contempt against this group. During the 80s and 90s, world war vision of Huntington and the theory of â€Å"clash of civilization† incited fear among the U.S. population. This was furthered by the 9/11 attacks in 2001. But things did not end there. The media then began, more and more, to put Islam and Muslims in a bad light. Even cartoon shows such as â€Å"The Simpsons† try to mix Islamophobia with humor. This means that even kids are not immune to this cultural reality of stereotyping this group of people as terrorists. Wh en it comes to the news industry, one of the most controversial channels is â€Å"Fox News.† For the past several years, â€Å"Fox News Channel† has been accused of inciting ethnic or religious animosity. With these as just a few examples of media biases and Islamophobia, it is then a wonder how a land of supposed constitutional rights and freedoms ends up forming a new kind of racism just after the institutionalization of the civil rights? While this area may just be a small percentage of the media, it speaks a lot of the challenges that the U.S. society faces to this day.

Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages

Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages This essay is potentially vast in its scope as the advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding can vary enormously depending on which authority one chooses to consult. (1) We shall therefore take an overview and present the generally accepted arguments in this area. There is a substantial evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding for not only the infant, but also the mother, the families and society as a whole. (2). The benefits are not only nutritional, but cover other areas such as development, immunity, psychological well-being, overall health risks, social and environmental areas (3) Human milk is widely recommended as the food of choice for the otherwise healthy full-term newborn. Apart from providing the optimal nutrition it contains a number of cellular and humoral components such as phagocytes, immunocompetant cells, immunoglobulins and hormones and also plays a (as yet, not fully defined) role in promoting intestinal mucosal maturation. (4) Because of these (and other) considerations, the World Health Organisation recommends exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first six months of life. (5) There is widespread evidence that the trend towards universal breastfeeding is increasing (viz. 6) in most of the developed countries, Fewtrell gives a global figure of 2% per year. but studies show that this trend is not equal across all socio-economic and demographic groups. If we specifically consider the UK situation then we can show that the commencement of breastfeeding is equal in the working and non-working mothers groups, although if one considers the situation of how many mothers are still breastfeeding at six months post partum, the incidence in the working mothers group is less than half that in the non-working group. (7) What then is the evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding? In addressing this question we shall confine our comments to those relevant to the developed world. If we consider the Kramer study, which compared the benefits of continued breastfeeding from 3 months to 6 months, the authors were able to demonstrate that the additional 3 months produced benefits in terms of greater weight gain, greater growth (length) together with a reduced incidence of gastrointestinal infection. (8) In absolute terms however, the benefits of breastfeeding over formula milks (or cows milk) is much greater. A huge number of potential childhood infections have been demonstrated to have a lower incidence in the breastfed child including bacterial meningitis, diarrhoea, respiratory tract infections, otitis media, urinary tract infections (9) as well as less common entities such as necrotising enetrocolitis (10). It is also significant that the all-cause mortality rates are 21% less in breast fed infants. We should note that this figure, although accurate, is misleading, as many high risk babies are not breast fed because of their intercurrent problems. (11) Apart from infections, many other health benefits can be demonstrated. There is a reduction in the incidence in sudden infant death syndrome under the age of 1 yr. (12). Diabetes (Type I and Type II) is less common amongst breastfed babies (in later life) as are the incidences of conditions such as lymphoma, leukaemia and Hodgkin’s disease. (13). Breastfeeding tends to be associated with a lower incidence of obesity, hypercholesterolaemia and asthma. (14) There is a slightly weaker evidence base to support the benefit of breastfeeding in terms of neurological development. Some authorities suggest that it can improve cognitive development. (15) and it may also reduce the perception of some painful stimuli. (16) In addition to benefits for the child, there are also a number of demonstrable benefits for the mother who breastfeeds. If suckling occurs at the time of birth, the resultant release of oxytocin reduces the incidence of post partum haemorrhage and increases the speed of uterine involution. (17). In the period after the birth, breastfeeding reduces both fertility and menstrual loss, it facilitates a return to pre-pregnancy weight, it reduces the risk of both ovarian and breast cancer (18) and may well reduce the incidence of osteoporotic fractured hips (19) In the opening segment of this essay we alluded to the benefits to the community as a whole. These can be defined in terms or reduced health costs to the community by virtue of the protective effects of breastfeeding. There are also less definable benefits in terms of reduced employee absenteeism. Some authorities have gone as far as to point to the environmental benefits of reduction in energy expenditure on production, distribution and disposal of formula feeds and their packaging. (20) Thus far we have considered the positive benefits of breastfeeding but in order to provide a balanced argument, we should also consider the disadvantages. The pre-term infant or severely underweight or ill baby has special needs and there are a number of reasons why they should not be breastfed. The pre-term infant has immature physiological systems and the kidneys may not be able to handle the osmotic gradients that are required to excrete the amount of fluid necessary to remove the amount of nutritional load required for adequate growth. This may result in respiratory problems and exacerbation of any pre-existing cardiac conditions (viz. patent ductus arteriosus). For this reason, most pre-term infant are electively parentrally fed and then weaned onto enteral feeding when their gastrointestinal tract and other physiological systems are mature enough to handle the fluid load. (21) If the mother is ill or has a potentially communicable illness such as HIV/AIDS or TB, then breastfeeding is contraindicated, as it is in conditions when certain drugs (both medicinal and recreational) are taken by the mother. (22). We should also record that the evidence for HIV/AIDS spread is not secure, as some studies have suggested that breastfeeding actually confers a degree of protection against HIV/AIDS for the child. This is still an area of considerable debate. (23) It is also clear from an examination of the literature on the subject, that there is a great deal of misinformation on the subject of breastfeeding in the popular press (and to a lesser extent in the medical press). Breastfeeding is not contraindicated in conditions such as Hepatitis B or C +ve. (24). Most febrile conditions are not a contraindication to breastfeeding as the maternal immune response will be passively given to the child in any event. Some authorities suggest that tobacco smoking is a contraindication to breastfeeding. If we remove considerations of general health from the consideration, there is no reason why tobacco smoke should be considered a bar to breastfeeding as such. (it clearly may be ill-advised however) (25). Some authorities suggest on theoretical grounds that breastfeeding should be suspended during the period of physiological jaundice of the newborn. A number of recent studies have shown that this is not necessary and may cause insurmountable difficulties in rehabilitation-establishing breastfeeding after the event. (26) In essence, within the scope of the exclusions referred to above, healthcare professionals should actively encourage and support mothers in their ability to breastfeed their offspring. In doing so, one should always consider the autonomy of the mother (27) and attempt to provide empowerment and education in order to facilitate the best result rather than compulsion or emotional blackmail. (28). This should help to ensure the maximum possible take up of breastfeeding from mothers who have been able to make a fully informed decision. If direct breastfeeding is not possible, then, generally speaking, expressed breast milk is the preferred substitute. In this essay we do not presume to have covered anything like an exhaustive presentation of the arguments, but there is no doubt, from an overview of the evidence base on the subject, that in the vast majority of cases, both mother and child will derive substantial benefits from being able to breast feed for at least the first six months of life. References (1) Duerbeck N B (1998) Breast-feeding: what you should know so you can talk to your patients. Comp Ther 1998 ; 24 : 310 318 (2) Kramer M S, Chalmers B, Hodnett E D, et al. (2001) Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA. 2001 ; 285 : 413 – 420 (3) Schanler R J. (2001) The use of human milk for premature infants. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 207 – 219 (4) Margolis L H and J. B. Schwartz (2000) The Relationship Between the Timing of Maternal Postpartum Hospital Discharge and Breastfeeding. J Hum Lact, May 1, 2000 ; 16 (2) : 121 128. (5) Fewtrell M S , J. B Morgan, C. Duggan, G. Gunnlaugsson, P. L Hibberd, A. Lucas, and R. E Klein man (2007) Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: what is the evidence to support current recommendations? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2007 ; 85 (2) : 635S 638S. (6) Bonuck K A, K. Freeman, and M. Trombley (2006) Randomized controlled trial of a prenatal and postnatal lactation consultant intervention on infant health care use. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, September 1, 2006 ; 160 (9) : 953 960. (7) Kramer M S, Kakuma R. (2001) The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization ; 2001 (8) Kramer M S , Guo T, Platt R W et al. (2003) Infant growth and health outcomes associated with 3 compared with 6 mo of exclusive breastfeeding. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 78, No. 2, 291 295, August 2003 (9) Heinig M J. (2001) Host defense benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. Effect of breastfeeding duration and exclusivity. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 105 –123 (10) Dewey K G, Heinig M J, Nommsen-Rivers L A. (1995) Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995 ;126 : 696 – 702 (11) Chen A, Rogan W J. (2004) Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States. Pediatrics. 2004 ;113 (5) (12) Horne R S, Parslow P M, Ferens D, Watts A M, Adamson T M. (2004) Comparison of evoked arousability in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child. 2004 ; 89 (1) : 22 –25 (13) Davis M K. (1998) Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer. Int J Cancer Suppl. 1998 ; 11 : 29 – 33 (14) Toschke A M, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, von Kries R. (2002) Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14-year old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breast-feeding. J Pediatr. 2002 ; 141 : 764 – 769 (15) Horwood L J, Darlow B A, Mogridge N. (2001) Breast milk feeding and cognitive ability at 7–8 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001 ; 84 : F23 – F27 (16) Carbajal R, Veerapen S, Couderc S, Jugie M, Ville Y. (2003) Analgesic effect of breast feeding in term neonates: randomized controlled trial. BMJ. 2003 ; 326 : 13 (17) Labbok M H. (2001) Effects of breastfeeding on the mother. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 143 – 158 (18) Rosenblatt K A, Thomas D B. (1993) Lactation and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid contraceptives. Int J Epidemiol. 1993 ; 22 : 192 – 197 (19) Paton L M, Alexander J L, Nowson C A, et al. (2003) Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term deleterious effect on measures of bone mineral in healthy women: a twin study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 ; 77 : 707 – 714 (20) Jarosz L A. (1993) Breast-feeding versus formula: cost comparison. Hawaii Med J. 1993 ; 52 : 14 – 18 (21) Denne, S. C., Karn, C. A., Ahlrichs, J. A., Dorotheo, A. R., Wang, J. Liechty, E. A. (1996) Proteolysis and phenylalanine hydroxylation in response to parenteral nutrition in extremely premature and normal newborns. J. Clin. Invest 97 : 746 -754 (22) Read J S; (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003 ; 112 : 1196 – 1205 (23) Coutsoudis A, Rollins N. (2003) Breast-feeding and HIV transmission: the jury is still out. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003 ; 36 : 434 – 442 (24) Pickering : (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics. Transmission of infectious agents via human milk. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003 : 118 – 121 (25) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2001) Committee on Drugs. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics. 2001 ; 108 : 776 – 789 (26) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2004) Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004 ; 114 : 297 – 316 (27) Sines D (1995) Impaired autonomy: the challenge of caring. Journal of Clinical Nursing 4 (2) 109 -115. (28) Marinker M.(1997) From compliance to concordance: achieving shared goals in medicine taking. BMJ 1997 ; 314 : 747 – 8. ############################################################### 12.05.07 PDG Word count 2,183 Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Pure un-doped zirconia is a polymorph which has three allotropes namely: Monoclinic, Tetragonal and finally Cubic. These phases tend to transform into each other when exposed to certain temperature ranges and such transformation is important for the processing and mechanical properties of zirconia. The monoclinic phase of pure un-doped zirconia is stable at room temperature and remains so up to about 11700C, where it then transforms into tetragonal phase. It becomes stable tetragonal at this temperature and remains so up to 23700C, where it turns to cubic. The cubic phase occurs up to the melting temperature of 26800C. Monoclinic phase The monoclinic form also referred to as baddeleyite, is a thermodynamically stable phase at a temperature range between room temperature and approximately 9500C. It contains four ZrO2 molecules per unit cell and has a space group of P21/c. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of monoclinic form. Its structure is described as a distorted fluorite (CaF2 structure). It is difficult to define the crystal structure of monoclinic zirconia because of its complexity as well as the problem of making a monoclinic single crystal with the satisfactory qualities due to: micro-cracking, low purity, twinning and disproportionate solid solution formation. Tetragonal phase This is a high temperature phase (t) firstly discovered by a group of scientist during its transformation from the lower temperature monoclinic phase over a temperature of about 11500C. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of tetragonal form. The structure is similar to that of monoclinic polymorph in the sense that it is also distorted CaF2 structure. Hence, tetragonal zirconia (t-ZrO2) can be described using the face centred tetragonal Bravais lattice as oppose to the body centred tetragonal lattice, that contains a unit cell with volume twice the size of the primitive cell. (3) Figure 2.2b shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. Its structure comprises of eight oxygen ions surrounding a zirconium ion, with half at a distance of 0.2455nm forming an elongated tetrahedron and the remaining four are at a distance of 0.2065 forming a flattened tetrahedron (the elongated and flattened tetrahedron are rotated 900 to each other). The transformation from tetragonal to monocli nic can start (Ts) and finish (Ts) over a range of temperatures. This reaction can be measured using the following experimental techniques: DTA, XRD and dilatometry. (3) Cubic phase Unlike the other structures, the cubic polymorph is quite easy to explain as it has a fluorite structure (CaF2). Figure 2.2c shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. It has a lattice parameter of the order 0.508nm (this however depends on the temperature purity of zirconia that is partially stabilised zirconia at room temperature or pure zirconia at elevated temperature) and a crystal symmetry of Fm3m.   The martensitic transformation For a martensitic transformation to occur, a change in shape is required which must also produce a plane that does not change during transformation. This is so that it is common to the phase produced as well as the parent phase. The phase transformation in zirconia involves a change in volume of between 4 to 5%. The matrix inhibits the transformed particle of zirconia causing a partial shape change. However, the transformation creates a strain which is held in the monoclinic and its surrounding grains. As a result of this, researchers have come up with the idea that transformation stresses are relieved by deformation twinning. When this happens, most of the lattice strain is then restricted to the monoclinic/matrix interface. Micro-cracks can be formed at this matrix/monolithic interface or in the monoclinic particle if this lattice strain increases. The twinning found in monoclinic is caused by deformation twinning, as the researchers have observed using TEM that a section of the st rain related with the transformation happens as a result of a mechanism known as slip. (3) The phase transformation particularly from tetragonal to monoclinic is of great importance, as it attributes the zirconias excellent properties. [from fulltext.pdf] It was firstly discovered by Garvie et al that the transformation of metastable tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase acts as a toughnening mechanism to crack propagation resistance in zirconia. The transformation is quick and results in a 4 to 5 percent increase in volume which leads to formation of micro-cracks and eventually macro-cracks in the material. This process induces compressive stresses and thus toughens the materials. Gupta et al backed this theory up. Studies showed that the transformation mechanism is highly dependent on grain size and by doping the ceramic material with stabilisers. Examples of stabilisers are yttria (Y2O3), magnesia (MgO), calcia (CaO), etc. Y-TZP ceramics is in the family of these toughened materials. Tetragonal zirconia doped with Yttria (Y-TZP) has great strength of over 1000MPa and tou ghness weighing between 6 and 10 MPa.m1/2. This makes it an ideal contender in medical applications, particularly in hip joints. ZrO2 Y2O3 The phase diagram shown in figure 3 was firstly discovered by Scott (1975), this study was agreed and used by many more researchers. The tetragonal phase field is the main aspect of figure 3. It shows that up to about 2.5mol% of Yttria can be produced in solid solution in addition with the low eutectoid temperature leading to the formation of a fully tetragonal ceramic, this will happen as long as the grain is of an appropriate size. The theory of transformation toughening produced some excitement in the materials industry however this excitement came to a halt when Kobayashi et al discovered a flaw in Y-TZP ceramics. Y-TZPs undergoes low temperature degradation during ageing at temperatures ranging from 100 to 4000C, this is particularly enhanced when it is exposed to water or is in humid environments. This degradation is due to the formation of flaws such as micro-cracks and macro-cracks (mentioned earlier) at the surface which gradually goes into the bulk of the material. These flaws are due to the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase. Material scientists have documented literature regarding the degradation however there have been contradictory views as to the mechanism of this phenomenon. Figure 4 is a graphshowing the low temperature degradation of different types of TZPs. Figure 5 shows ageing temperature against surface monoclinic levels. Some of these researchers focused on the interaction between water (or water vapour) and YTZP, whilst others focused on ways to prevent this from happened. Sato et al came up with a theory where the hydroxyl group from water (H2O) reacts with zirconia from the bonds between zirconia and oxygen (that is Zr-O-Zr bonds) forming Zr-OH bonds at crack tips. This accelerates the rate at which the metastable tetragonal phase transforms to monoclinic at low temperatures. They came up with the conclusion that there is a strain which stabilizes the tetragonal phase, however under certain circumstances it is released and with the combination other pre existing flaws accelerates the transformation. The theory put forward by Yoshimura et al is similar to that of Sato et al in the sense that the Zr-OH bonds are also formed. However, the reaction process which leads to the same outcome is what differentiates the two theories. Their research showed a comparison of the transformed monoclinic phase to the untransformed tetragonal ZrO2. Hydroxyl (OH-) was in the monoclinic ZrO2 whereas there was no trace in the latter. Due to their findings, they came up with the theory that the degradation process occurred in stages: upon exposure to water, Zr-OH bonds are formed as a result of H2O being adsorbed on the YTZP surface. This creates a stress site which builds up as the OH- ions diffuse through the surface and lattice causing the formation of nucleation sites for the phase transformation. This occurs until the stress reaches crack level causing the transformation to occur at the surface leading to the formation of micro and macro cracks all the way through to the bulk. Lange et al [7] witnessed ÃŽÂ ±-Y(OH)3 crystallites of about 20 50 nm in size forming and came up with the idea that the hydroxide formed creates a monoclinic nuclei by removing Yttria from the grains of the tetragonal phase on the surface. As Yttria is being withdrawn, growth of the nuclei continues until a critical size where it will grow spontaneuously, leading to the transformation of tetragonal grains to monoclinic. Micro cracks and macro-cracks begin to occur as the transformed grain gets large enough. This process happens over and over again as the micro and macro-cracks act as a site for water molecules to penetrate into to the grains. This process occurs only if the grains are larger than the critical size. However, if they are smaller, the transformation will be influenced by the diffusion of Yttria on the surface. Other researchers such as Winnubst and Burggraf support this theory, as they found traces of Yttria on surface layer of the YTZP specimen. Their specimen was exposed to temperature of 1770C in a nitrogen environment for over 5hrs and using an auger electron microscope, they found a yttrium rich surface layer. The listed theories were based on YTZPs mechanism during degradation. Whalen et al identified that the reason for this degradation is the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase at the surface which then eventually spreads to the bulk. They came up with the idea of stabilising the tetragonal phase. This could be done by either of the following two methods: the chemical factor which is increasing the stabiliser content on the surface or the microstructural solution which is reducing the grain size at the surface. The latter was decided upon and this was done by the process of post sintering grinding followed by annealing treatment. 2.45mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 was the material involved in the research. Samples of the material were made using isostatic pressing at pressure of 275MPa and then sintered at a temperature of 15000C for a time period of 2hrs. A 2mm disk was formed of which its two sides had different surfaces treatments, One side being polished and the other being surface grounded. The phase compositions at surfaces were then examined using XRD. The XRD result indicated there was a significant difference in the phase composition of both sides. The ground side showed little transformation change whereas there was 50% increase in monoclinic phase after annealing. This provided evidence that the ground and annealed surface hindered the process of phase transformation from tetragonal to monoclinic at the surface. As a result of this, there were no micro-cracks formed at the surface and hence the expected mechanical properties were achieved. Talk and compare it to mine later (TEM as oppose to XRD, advantages of process) The aim of this project is to provide evidence (if any) of the occurrence of refined grains (recrystallization) in Y-TZP structures as a result of deformation. The ideology used to explain the concept of recrystallization in metals can be used to explain its occurrence in ceramics as this is a new phenomena in the ceramic industry. Grain refinement requires certain conditions in its exposure in polycrystalline ceramics and they are: plastically deforming the material (as a result of applying a stress) and followed by heat treatment. Deformation is basically a change in body shape which occurs as a result of an applied force. Materials may experience either elastic which is impermanent deformation that upon the release of an applied stress is recovered or plastic deformation which is permanent deformation that is non recoverable when a stress is applied. YTZPs recrystallization behaviour can be explained by its ability to plastically deform. The stress and strain behaviour of a material is used to determine the start and the degree of plastic deformation. Figure 6 shows an example of a typical stress and strain curve. Yield tensile strength is the point at which elastic deformation ends and the material begins to plastically deformation. Most polymers and metals undergo elastic followed by plastic deformation but this is not the case for ceramics. They undergo elastic deformation followed by fracture with little or no plastic deformation. YTZP has superplasticity properties and this nature can be used to explain refinement in its microstructure. Plastic deformation is governed by the movement of large numbers of dislocations. Hindering dislocation motion will increase a materials strength. Ceramics are inorganic materials held together by both ionic and covalent bonds. The bonding combination results in hindering the motion of dislocations, hence their high strength but brittle behaviour. Dislocation is an important factor in understanding plastic deformation and so certain elements need to be examined in order to understand the concept. Most materials comprise of an arrangement of atoms referred to as a crystal structure (these can either be single or polycrystalline that is having multiple crystals as the name suggests). This project will focus on polycrystalline zirconia, however understanding single crystals help in explaining the behaviour of polycrystalline materials. All crystal structures have flaws that distort the regular arrangement of the atoms. These flaws can either be point defect (that is they may have vacancies or interstitials), surface, line (dislocations) and volume defects. The activities and effects of all these flaws are interconnected thus the importance in the need to understand them. As the dislocations move, they tend to interact with one another however this interaction is a complex as an amount of dislocations (rephrased from pdf). The collective motion of dislocations leads to gross plastic deformation. http://composite.about.com/library/PR/2001/blmpi1.htm Dislocations can either be screw, edge or a hybrid of both. Edge dislocation: in this dislocation, the line of defect is parallel to the shear stress. The dislocation movement is similar to that of a caterpillar in the sense that the motion is in small amounts at a time. Figure 7shows a typical schematic of the motion of dislocations. A is the extra half plane of atoms. As shear stress is applied, the bond between the upper and lower part of B is broken. The extra atom plane of atom A bonds with the lower part of B converting the lower part to an extra half plane. This motion causes the top half to move with respect to the bottom half. Screw dislocation: this is similar to that of edge in the sense that it also occurs with shear stress however, the defect line is perpendicular to the shear stress as oppose to being parallel. Just like the edge dislocation only a minute fraction of bonds are broken at a given time. Although the motions are different, the overall plastic deformation for both dislocations is the same. The primary mechanism that causes plastic deformation in crystals is called slip. As dislocations move across the crystals, they shear the crystals along their planes of motion. Slip System The degree of ease of motion of dislocations is different with in all crystallographic directions and crystallographic planes of atoms. Normally dislocation motion occurs in a preferred plane and within that plane there are specific directions at also which it occurs. The combination of the plane and direction is referred to as a slip system. The plane at which this motion occurs is referred to as slip plane, and the direction is referred to as slip direction. The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the material. Slip will only occur when the value of applied the shear stress exceeds a certain critical value. The mechanism at which slip occurs is different in single crystals that of polycrystalline materials. Schmid defined the critical shear stress in single crystals as shown in figure 9: Deformation is much more complicated in polycrystalline materials as the crystallography orientations of numerous grains have to be taken into account. This orientation is random and therefore causes the direction of slip to vary from one grain to another. Its complexity extends further more to the grain boundaries which acts as barriers to dislocation motion. Twinning is another mechanism at which plastic deformation can occur. The idea of twinning in plastic deformation is to allow further slip to occur by producing changes in plane orientations. It occurs when a fraction of the crystals adopts an orientation that is correlated to the orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in an exact proportioned way. Figure 10 shows an illustration of an un-deformed crystal with one undergoing slip and twinning. There is a clear difference between slip and twinning. The crystal orientation in a slip is the same above and below the slip plane whereas in twinning differs across the twin plane. More differences is illustrated in figure 11 Slip Twinning Where it occurs Widely spread planes Every plane of region is involved Occurrence On many multiple slip systems simultaneously On a particular plane for each crystal Time required Milli seconds Micro seconds Size (in terms of inter atomic distance) Multiples Fractions. ANNEALING PROCESS LEADING TO RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION AND GRAIN GROWTH Annealing is a high temperature process that causes changes in a materials structure, leading to alterations in its properties. When a material is plastically deformed, majority of the energy is dissipated as heat, but a minute fraction is stored in the material as strain energy which is associated with a range of lattice imperfections established as a result of deformation. The deformation process as well as a number of various factors (such as temperature and rate of deformation) determines the amount of energy stored in the material. A reduction in deformation and an increase in intensity of deformation cause a vast increase in the amount of retained energy. The release of stored energy There are two main techniques of releasing the energy retained by a material due to plastic deformation and they are an-isothermal annealing and isothermal annealing. Anisothermal annealing occurs when the material is continuously heated from a lower temperature to that of a higher one (the energy discharged is determined as a function of temperature) whereas, Isothermal annealing occurs when the temperature is constant. The materials microstructure will undergo either or maybe all of these three restoration processes: recovery, recrystallization and grain growth. The extent of plastic deformation can sometimes determine the mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization. These processes require heat treatment to cause rearrangement of grain boundaries and dislocations. Recovery It is the initial stage of annealing that takes place at the low temperature stage of annealing. As a material is plastically deformed, a minute portion of mechanical energy is stored which exists in crystals as stacking faults, point defects (such defects are interstitials and vacancies) and dislocations. When a material is plastically deformed, it is at a thermodynamically unstable state of higher energy. This is converted to lower energy states by the application of annealing leading to a change in microstructure. There are two process involved in recovery: slip annihilating and polygonization. Slip annihilation occurs when dislocations of opposite signs (that is in the case of edge dislocations, the fusion of the positive and the negative edge dislocation or in the case of screw in which the right hand screw merges with the left hand screw) merge together thereby cancelling each other out. Polygonization is the rearrangement of dislocation after annihilation recovery to a lower energy configuration. During recovery, this strain energy built up is relieved to some extent by dislocation motion, due to enhanced atomic diffusion at high temperatures. Recovery leads to physical properties like thermal and electrical conductivities being recovered to their pre worked states. [ggbk] Recrystallization After recovery, grains are not entirely strain free. That is the energy state of the grains is relatively high. New sets of strain free grains having near equal dimensions in all directions with low dislocation densities are formed. This process is known as recrystallization. This mechanism of producing new equaxed grains is driven by the difference in internal energy between the unstrained and strained material. The process of recrystallization can occur after or during deformation. The manner at which recrystallization occurs is of two kinds which vary with materials. Firstly a continuous manner, at which the microstructure gradually evolves into a recrystallized one or a discontinuous manner at which distinct new grains nucleate and grow Recrystallization after deformation is referred to as static whereas the latter is known as dynamic. The extent at which recrystallization occurs is dependent on two factors namely: time and recrystallization temperature. The temperature at which recrystallization is completed in an hour is referred to as recrystallization temperature. It is usually a third to half the materials melting temperature. The rate at which recovery process occurs is inversely proportional to time (that is it reduces with increasing time). Recrystallization has an entirely different kinetic. During the isothermal annealing, recrystallization starts very slowly then builds up gradually up to a certain point where it slows down. This can be shown in figure 13 In some cases it can be as high 0.7th the melting temperature. An illustration of the relationship between recrystallization temperature and percentage cold work is shown in figure 14. It is understood that as the percentage cold work increases, the recrystallization temperature decreases. Other factors affect the rate and occurrence of recrystallization. The annealing temperature is one of a few factors that have an effect on recrystallization. A materials recrystallization temperature reduces annealing time. The stress applied is another factor both recrystallization and temperature, an increase in stress applied means a lower temperature is required to activate the process. Also, the deformation on the material must be enough to allow nucleation and growth. A process known as grain growth occurs in a polycrystalline material after recrystallization provided the annealing temperature is maintained. The restoration mechanism does not require prior deformation or recrystallization and therefore will occur during annealing in their absence in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundary is the driving force for recovery. Stored energy produced as a result of a material being plastically deformed is released during the process of annealing causing a change in microstructure. This energy released is as a result of various mechanisms due to crystal defect interactions: A decrease in crystal defects due to their reactions with each other. Dislocations with opposite signs interacting causing their annihilation and dislocation loop shrinkage. Relocation of dislocations causing the formation of lower energy configurations such as grain boundaries with low angles. The formation of grain boundaries with high angles. These reactions occur during the restoration process of recovery. After this process, the following can occur: Dislocations as well as point defects being absorbed as a result of the migration of high angle grain boundaries. A decrease in the overall grain boundary area. These micro-structural changes occur during the restoration process of recrystallization and recovery. As a result of these micro-structural modifications, an ideal definition of recrystallization is derived: Along with the micro-structural changes, the properties of the specimen also change correspondingly. Thus, deformation and annealing are important processing methods for producing desired properties of the material by controlling its microstructures. Recrystallization mechanism The start of recrystallization is referred to as nucleation and occurs when dislocations are rearranged so as to form low dislocation density sections that have a high angle grain boundary with great mobility and thus is capable of quick movement over the strained region or recovered matrix. Recrystallization has a low driving force and high grain boundary energies; as a result of these characteristics, thermal variations cannot explain regions surrounded by high angle grain boundaries that are free from defects upon annealing. Therefore, the formation of recrystallized grains does not occur during annealing but previously exists in the deformed state. Three methods can be used to describe nucleation and they are: Movement of high angle boundaries that already exist before annealing: this happens when pre existing grain boundaries move into grains that are highly strained as illustrated in figure 16 this process requires a favourable energy balance between an increase in the overall grain boundary surface and a reduction in stored energy as a result of the removal defects triggered by the migration of the boundary. Movement of sub boundaries (that is low angle boundaries): this model is based on the theory of polygonization where stored energy is reduced during annealing as a result of rearrangement and removal of defects. It occurs when sub grain boundaries besiege regions containing low dislocation densities. Upon formation of sub grains, with the help of sub grain boundary movement, they are able to grow at the expense their neighbouring grains. Dislocations are absorbed by migrating sub boundaries and because of this, their mobility, orientation differences and energies are increased until their transformation into high angle boundaries, thus illustrating nucleation. Sub grains coalescence: this occurs when two neighbouring subgrains merge leading to their crystal lattices coinciding. It is regarded as a slow process but when compared to migration of sub grains is favoured for annealing at low temperatures. it is illustrated in figure 17. In this method, stored energy is reduced leading sub boundaries disappearing, sub grains growing and increase in orientation differences between coalescence groups and their neighbouring sub grains. These lead to the formation of high angle boundaries which move at high speeds and cause the process of recrystallization nucleation. It is vital to identify the fact that the total energy balance that takes the disappearance of sub boundaries into account with the increase and orientation difference is favourable (that is it leads to a reduction in total free energy). This mechanism is illustrated in figure 18. The occurrence of these three models is relatively diverse and they will therefore occur under different conditions. The basic requirement for the occurrence of the movement of pre existing grain boundaries that is the existence of differences in large strain between neighbouring grains is well accepted by researchers. However, there is conflict as to when the mechanisms sub grain boundaries migration and the coalescence of sub grains occur. Researchers believed the coalescence of sub grain boundaries are linked with large dispersion of sub grain angles distribution, relatively moderate strain, and reasonably low annealing temperatures. Whereas the mechanism of sub grain migration is linked with high annealing temperatures, strains that are relatively high and large dispersion in the distribution in sub grain size. Growth of recrystallized regions The basic mechanism causing recrystallization and grain growth is the migration of grain boundaries with high angles. However their driving force is what differentiates them from each other. The energy of the high angled grain boundaries is the main driving force for grain growth whether it being abnormal or normal growth. Whereas that for recrystallization is the energy stored during straining appeared as crystalline defects. In defect free regions that are encircled by boundaries with high angle, recrystallization progresses by enlargement of this nucleus over the non recrystallized medium. Grain growth and recrystallizations migrating high angle boundary curvature signal is another important factor that differentiates the two. http://asmcommunity.asminternational.org/portal/site/www/AsmStore/ProductDetails/?vgnextoid=a75a7dcbe4e18110VgnVCM100000701e010aRCRD ASM Handbook Volume 14A, Metalworking: Bulk Forming (ASM International) http://www.accuratus.com/zirc.html http://www.totaljoints.info/ceramic_for_total_hips.htm#2 http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=940 http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eUZw4SgqaPYCpg=PA126lpg=PA126dq=phase+transformation+mechanism+leading+to+microcracks+zirconiasource=blots=fCFhf-satfsig=WNiOjbUtX06mA_d1NkXIEEHcOsshl=enei=r568S9zCKJHFsgaxkd3lCQsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=4ved=0CBYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepageqf=false EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Equipment Three samples of YTZP, 0ne made from 3mol Y2O3/ZrO2 powder and the other two made from the same powder but by two other manufacturers. Focused Ion Beam (FIB): is a technique used by material scientists in the analysis of a materials microstructure. the samples obtained can either be analysed directly using the FIB or transferred and viewed under a TEM or SEM. This process is similar to that of an SEM however ions (particularly gallium ions) rather than electrons. Figures 19a and b show how the FIB operates. The surface of the sample being tested is subjected to primary gallium ion beams. This spits a small part of the material, leading to the formation of either secondary ions (either positive or negative) or neutral atoms on the surface. Secondary electrons (e) are also produced from the gallium beam. This is collected as well as the signal from the split ions to form an image which is either analyzed using the FIB itself, SEM or TEM. http://www.fibics.com/fib/tutorials/introduction-focused-ion-beam-systems/4/ images is from here. GNU image manipulation program (GIMP): is an image editing software used to measure grain sizes. Vickers indentation: is used to form indentations which are viewed and studied under an optical microscope. A square imprint is formed from the Vickers indenter, where the two diagonal lengths are measured. In this project, the Vickers indentation is used to form plastic deformation. The surface defects such as scratches and unevenness need to be controlled, hence the reason for polishing. High temperature furnace: used for sintering and annealing. TEM Cold isostatic pressing Sample preparation Three mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 solid solution powder was used in this experiment. The powder was pressed into a disc at 200MPa, then sintered at 14500C for 2 hours. Two discs were produced, each pressed with loads 7.5 tons and 5 tons respectively. The load was reduced to 5 inorder to reduce the chance of lamination, as it occurred with the 7.5. Measurements and dimensions Sample 1: broken Sample 2 Weight 25.7711g 19.6836g Diameter 39.23 39.11 Height (thickness) 7.1 6.51 Dimensions after sintering<