Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages

Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages This essay is potentially vast in its scope as the advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding can vary enormously depending on which authority one chooses to consult. (1) We shall therefore take an overview and present the generally accepted arguments in this area. There is a substantial evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding for not only the infant, but also the mother, the families and society as a whole. (2). The benefits are not only nutritional, but cover other areas such as development, immunity, psychological well-being, overall health risks, social and environmental areas (3) Human milk is widely recommended as the food of choice for the otherwise healthy full-term newborn. Apart from providing the optimal nutrition it contains a number of cellular and humoral components such as phagocytes, immunocompetant cells, immunoglobulins and hormones and also plays a (as yet, not fully defined) role in promoting intestinal mucosal maturation. (4) Because of these (and other) considerations, the World Health Organisation recommends exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first six months of life. (5) There is widespread evidence that the trend towards universal breastfeeding is increasing (viz. 6) in most of the developed countries, Fewtrell gives a global figure of 2% per year. but studies show that this trend is not equal across all socio-economic and demographic groups. If we specifically consider the UK situation then we can show that the commencement of breastfeeding is equal in the working and non-working mothers groups, although if one considers the situation of how many mothers are still breastfeeding at six months post partum, the incidence in the working mothers group is less than half that in the non-working group. (7) What then is the evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding? In addressing this question we shall confine our comments to those relevant to the developed world. If we consider the Kramer study, which compared the benefits of continued breastfeeding from 3 months to 6 months, the authors were able to demonstrate that the additional 3 months produced benefits in terms of greater weight gain, greater growth (length) together with a reduced incidence of gastrointestinal infection. (8) In absolute terms however, the benefits of breastfeeding over formula milks (or cows milk) is much greater. A huge number of potential childhood infections have been demonstrated to have a lower incidence in the breastfed child including bacterial meningitis, diarrhoea, respiratory tract infections, otitis media, urinary tract infections (9) as well as less common entities such as necrotising enetrocolitis (10). It is also significant that the all-cause mortality rates are 21% less in breast fed infants. We should note that this figure, although accurate, is misleading, as many high risk babies are not breast fed because of their intercurrent problems. (11) Apart from infections, many other health benefits can be demonstrated. There is a reduction in the incidence in sudden infant death syndrome under the age of 1 yr. (12). Diabetes (Type I and Type II) is less common amongst breastfed babies (in later life) as are the incidences of conditions such as lymphoma, leukaemia and Hodgkin’s disease. (13). Breastfeeding tends to be associated with a lower incidence of obesity, hypercholesterolaemia and asthma. (14) There is a slightly weaker evidence base to support the benefit of breastfeeding in terms of neurological development. Some authorities suggest that it can improve cognitive development. (15) and it may also reduce the perception of some painful stimuli. (16) In addition to benefits for the child, there are also a number of demonstrable benefits for the mother who breastfeeds. If suckling occurs at the time of birth, the resultant release of oxytocin reduces the incidence of post partum haemorrhage and increases the speed of uterine involution. (17). In the period after the birth, breastfeeding reduces both fertility and menstrual loss, it facilitates a return to pre-pregnancy weight, it reduces the risk of both ovarian and breast cancer (18) and may well reduce the incidence of osteoporotic fractured hips (19) In the opening segment of this essay we alluded to the benefits to the community as a whole. These can be defined in terms or reduced health costs to the community by virtue of the protective effects of breastfeeding. There are also less definable benefits in terms of reduced employee absenteeism. Some authorities have gone as far as to point to the environmental benefits of reduction in energy expenditure on production, distribution and disposal of formula feeds and their packaging. (20) Thus far we have considered the positive benefits of breastfeeding but in order to provide a balanced argument, we should also consider the disadvantages. The pre-term infant or severely underweight or ill baby has special needs and there are a number of reasons why they should not be breastfed. The pre-term infant has immature physiological systems and the kidneys may not be able to handle the osmotic gradients that are required to excrete the amount of fluid necessary to remove the amount of nutritional load required for adequate growth. This may result in respiratory problems and exacerbation of any pre-existing cardiac conditions (viz. patent ductus arteriosus). For this reason, most pre-term infant are electively parentrally fed and then weaned onto enteral feeding when their gastrointestinal tract and other physiological systems are mature enough to handle the fluid load. (21) If the mother is ill or has a potentially communicable illness such as HIV/AIDS or TB, then breastfeeding is contraindicated, as it is in conditions when certain drugs (both medicinal and recreational) are taken by the mother. (22). We should also record that the evidence for HIV/AIDS spread is not secure, as some studies have suggested that breastfeeding actually confers a degree of protection against HIV/AIDS for the child. This is still an area of considerable debate. (23) It is also clear from an examination of the literature on the subject, that there is a great deal of misinformation on the subject of breastfeeding in the popular press (and to a lesser extent in the medical press). Breastfeeding is not contraindicated in conditions such as Hepatitis B or C +ve. (24). Most febrile conditions are not a contraindication to breastfeeding as the maternal immune response will be passively given to the child in any event. Some authorities suggest that tobacco smoking is a contraindication to breastfeeding. If we remove considerations of general health from the consideration, there is no reason why tobacco smoke should be considered a bar to breastfeeding as such. (it clearly may be ill-advised however) (25). Some authorities suggest on theoretical grounds that breastfeeding should be suspended during the period of physiological jaundice of the newborn. A number of recent studies have shown that this is not necessary and may cause insurmountable difficulties in rehabilitation-establishing breastfeeding after the event. (26) In essence, within the scope of the exclusions referred to above, healthcare professionals should actively encourage and support mothers in their ability to breastfeed their offspring. In doing so, one should always consider the autonomy of the mother (27) and attempt to provide empowerment and education in order to facilitate the best result rather than compulsion or emotional blackmail. (28). This should help to ensure the maximum possible take up of breastfeeding from mothers who have been able to make a fully informed decision. If direct breastfeeding is not possible, then, generally speaking, expressed breast milk is the preferred substitute. In this essay we do not presume to have covered anything like an exhaustive presentation of the arguments, but there is no doubt, from an overview of the evidence base on the subject, that in the vast majority of cases, both mother and child will derive substantial benefits from being able to breast feed for at least the first six months of life. References (1) Duerbeck N B (1998) Breast-feeding: what you should know so you can talk to your patients. Comp Ther 1998 ; 24 : 310 318 (2) Kramer M S, Chalmers B, Hodnett E D, et al. (2001) Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA. 2001 ; 285 : 413 – 420 (3) Schanler R J. (2001) The use of human milk for premature infants. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 207 – 219 (4) Margolis L H and J. B. Schwartz (2000) The Relationship Between the Timing of Maternal Postpartum Hospital Discharge and Breastfeeding. J Hum Lact, May 1, 2000 ; 16 (2) : 121 128. (5) Fewtrell M S , J. B Morgan, C. Duggan, G. Gunnlaugsson, P. L Hibberd, A. Lucas, and R. E Klein man (2007) Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: what is the evidence to support current recommendations? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2007 ; 85 (2) : 635S 638S. (6) Bonuck K A, K. Freeman, and M. Trombley (2006) Randomized controlled trial of a prenatal and postnatal lactation consultant intervention on infant health care use. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, September 1, 2006 ; 160 (9) : 953 960. (7) Kramer M S, Kakuma R. (2001) The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization ; 2001 (8) Kramer M S , Guo T, Platt R W et al. (2003) Infant growth and health outcomes associated with 3 compared with 6 mo of exclusive breastfeeding. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 78, No. 2, 291 295, August 2003 (9) Heinig M J. (2001) Host defense benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. Effect of breastfeeding duration and exclusivity. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 105 –123 (10) Dewey K G, Heinig M J, Nommsen-Rivers L A. (1995) Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995 ;126 : 696 – 702 (11) Chen A, Rogan W J. (2004) Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States. Pediatrics. 2004 ;113 (5) (12) Horne R S, Parslow P M, Ferens D, Watts A M, Adamson T M. (2004) Comparison of evoked arousability in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child. 2004 ; 89 (1) : 22 –25 (13) Davis M K. (1998) Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer. Int J Cancer Suppl. 1998 ; 11 : 29 – 33 (14) Toschke A M, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, von Kries R. (2002) Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14-year old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breast-feeding. J Pediatr. 2002 ; 141 : 764 – 769 (15) Horwood L J, Darlow B A, Mogridge N. (2001) Breast milk feeding and cognitive ability at 7–8 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001 ; 84 : F23 – F27 (16) Carbajal R, Veerapen S, Couderc S, Jugie M, Ville Y. (2003) Analgesic effect of breast feeding in term neonates: randomized controlled trial. BMJ. 2003 ; 326 : 13 (17) Labbok M H. (2001) Effects of breastfeeding on the mother. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 143 – 158 (18) Rosenblatt K A, Thomas D B. (1993) Lactation and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid contraceptives. Int J Epidemiol. 1993 ; 22 : 192 – 197 (19) Paton L M, Alexander J L, Nowson C A, et al. (2003) Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term deleterious effect on measures of bone mineral in healthy women: a twin study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 ; 77 : 707 – 714 (20) Jarosz L A. (1993) Breast-feeding versus formula: cost comparison. Hawaii Med J. 1993 ; 52 : 14 – 18 (21) Denne, S. C., Karn, C. A., Ahlrichs, J. A., Dorotheo, A. R., Wang, J. Liechty, E. A. (1996) Proteolysis and phenylalanine hydroxylation in response to parenteral nutrition in extremely premature and normal newborns. J. Clin. Invest 97 : 746 -754 (22) Read J S; (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003 ; 112 : 1196 – 1205 (23) Coutsoudis A, Rollins N. (2003) Breast-feeding and HIV transmission: the jury is still out. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003 ; 36 : 434 – 442 (24) Pickering : (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics. Transmission of infectious agents via human milk. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003 : 118 – 121 (25) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2001) Committee on Drugs. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics. 2001 ; 108 : 776 – 789 (26) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2004) Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004 ; 114 : 297 – 316 (27) Sines D (1995) Impaired autonomy: the challenge of caring. Journal of Clinical Nursing 4 (2) 109 -115. (28) Marinker M.(1997) From compliance to concordance: achieving shared goals in medicine taking. BMJ 1997 ; 314 : 747 – 8. ############################################################### 12.05.07 PDG Word count 2,183 Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Pure un-doped zirconia is a polymorph which has three allotropes namely: Monoclinic, Tetragonal and finally Cubic. These phases tend to transform into each other when exposed to certain temperature ranges and such transformation is important for the processing and mechanical properties of zirconia. The monoclinic phase of pure un-doped zirconia is stable at room temperature and remains so up to about 11700C, where it then transforms into tetragonal phase. It becomes stable tetragonal at this temperature and remains so up to 23700C, where it turns to cubic. The cubic phase occurs up to the melting temperature of 26800C. Monoclinic phase The monoclinic form also referred to as baddeleyite, is a thermodynamically stable phase at a temperature range between room temperature and approximately 9500C. It contains four ZrO2 molecules per unit cell and has a space group of P21/c. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of monoclinic form. Its structure is described as a distorted fluorite (CaF2 structure). It is difficult to define the crystal structure of monoclinic zirconia because of its complexity as well as the problem of making a monoclinic single crystal with the satisfactory qualities due to: micro-cracking, low purity, twinning and disproportionate solid solution formation. Tetragonal phase This is a high temperature phase (t) firstly discovered by a group of scientist during its transformation from the lower temperature monoclinic phase over a temperature of about 11500C. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of tetragonal form. The structure is similar to that of monoclinic polymorph in the sense that it is also distorted CaF2 structure. Hence, tetragonal zirconia (t-ZrO2) can be described using the face centred tetragonal Bravais lattice as oppose to the body centred tetragonal lattice, that contains a unit cell with volume twice the size of the primitive cell. (3) Figure 2.2b shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. Its structure comprises of eight oxygen ions surrounding a zirconium ion, with half at a distance of 0.2455nm forming an elongated tetrahedron and the remaining four are at a distance of 0.2065 forming a flattened tetrahedron (the elongated and flattened tetrahedron are rotated 900 to each other). The transformation from tetragonal to monocli nic can start (Ts) and finish (Ts) over a range of temperatures. This reaction can be measured using the following experimental techniques: DTA, XRD and dilatometry. (3) Cubic phase Unlike the other structures, the cubic polymorph is quite easy to explain as it has a fluorite structure (CaF2). Figure 2.2c shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. It has a lattice parameter of the order 0.508nm (this however depends on the temperature purity of zirconia that is partially stabilised zirconia at room temperature or pure zirconia at elevated temperature) and a crystal symmetry of Fm3m.   The martensitic transformation For a martensitic transformation to occur, a change in shape is required which must also produce a plane that does not change during transformation. This is so that it is common to the phase produced as well as the parent phase. The phase transformation in zirconia involves a change in volume of between 4 to 5%. The matrix inhibits the transformed particle of zirconia causing a partial shape change. However, the transformation creates a strain which is held in the monoclinic and its surrounding grains. As a result of this, researchers have come up with the idea that transformation stresses are relieved by deformation twinning. When this happens, most of the lattice strain is then restricted to the monoclinic/matrix interface. Micro-cracks can be formed at this matrix/monolithic interface or in the monoclinic particle if this lattice strain increases. The twinning found in monoclinic is caused by deformation twinning, as the researchers have observed using TEM that a section of the st rain related with the transformation happens as a result of a mechanism known as slip. (3) The phase transformation particularly from tetragonal to monoclinic is of great importance, as it attributes the zirconias excellent properties. [from fulltext.pdf] It was firstly discovered by Garvie et al that the transformation of metastable tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase acts as a toughnening mechanism to crack propagation resistance in zirconia. The transformation is quick and results in a 4 to 5 percent increase in volume which leads to formation of micro-cracks and eventually macro-cracks in the material. This process induces compressive stresses and thus toughens the materials. Gupta et al backed this theory up. Studies showed that the transformation mechanism is highly dependent on grain size and by doping the ceramic material with stabilisers. Examples of stabilisers are yttria (Y2O3), magnesia (MgO), calcia (CaO), etc. Y-TZP ceramics is in the family of these toughened materials. Tetragonal zirconia doped with Yttria (Y-TZP) has great strength of over 1000MPa and tou ghness weighing between 6 and 10 MPa.m1/2. This makes it an ideal contender in medical applications, particularly in hip joints. ZrO2 Y2O3 The phase diagram shown in figure 3 was firstly discovered by Scott (1975), this study was agreed and used by many more researchers. The tetragonal phase field is the main aspect of figure 3. It shows that up to about 2.5mol% of Yttria can be produced in solid solution in addition with the low eutectoid temperature leading to the formation of a fully tetragonal ceramic, this will happen as long as the grain is of an appropriate size. The theory of transformation toughening produced some excitement in the materials industry however this excitement came to a halt when Kobayashi et al discovered a flaw in Y-TZP ceramics. Y-TZPs undergoes low temperature degradation during ageing at temperatures ranging from 100 to 4000C, this is particularly enhanced when it is exposed to water or is in humid environments. This degradation is due to the formation of flaws such as micro-cracks and macro-cracks (mentioned earlier) at the surface which gradually goes into the bulk of the material. These flaws are due to the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase. Material scientists have documented literature regarding the degradation however there have been contradictory views as to the mechanism of this phenomenon. Figure 4 is a graphshowing the low temperature degradation of different types of TZPs. Figure 5 shows ageing temperature against surface monoclinic levels. Some of these researchers focused on the interaction between water (or water vapour) and YTZP, whilst others focused on ways to prevent this from happened. Sato et al came up with a theory where the hydroxyl group from water (H2O) reacts with zirconia from the bonds between zirconia and oxygen (that is Zr-O-Zr bonds) forming Zr-OH bonds at crack tips. This accelerates the rate at which the metastable tetragonal phase transforms to monoclinic at low temperatures. They came up with the conclusion that there is a strain which stabilizes the tetragonal phase, however under certain circumstances it is released and with the combination other pre existing flaws accelerates the transformation. The theory put forward by Yoshimura et al is similar to that of Sato et al in the sense that the Zr-OH bonds are also formed. However, the reaction process which leads to the same outcome is what differentiates the two theories. Their research showed a comparison of the transformed monoclinic phase to the untransformed tetragonal ZrO2. Hydroxyl (OH-) was in the monoclinic ZrO2 whereas there was no trace in the latter. Due to their findings, they came up with the theory that the degradation process occurred in stages: upon exposure to water, Zr-OH bonds are formed as a result of H2O being adsorbed on the YTZP surface. This creates a stress site which builds up as the OH- ions diffuse through the surface and lattice causing the formation of nucleation sites for the phase transformation. This occurs until the stress reaches crack level causing the transformation to occur at the surface leading to the formation of micro and macro cracks all the way through to the bulk. Lange et al [7] witnessed ÃŽÂ ±-Y(OH)3 crystallites of about 20 50 nm in size forming and came up with the idea that the hydroxide formed creates a monoclinic nuclei by removing Yttria from the grains of the tetragonal phase on the surface. As Yttria is being withdrawn, growth of the nuclei continues until a critical size where it will grow spontaneuously, leading to the transformation of tetragonal grains to monoclinic. Micro cracks and macro-cracks begin to occur as the transformed grain gets large enough. This process happens over and over again as the micro and macro-cracks act as a site for water molecules to penetrate into to the grains. This process occurs only if the grains are larger than the critical size. However, if they are smaller, the transformation will be influenced by the diffusion of Yttria on the surface. Other researchers such as Winnubst and Burggraf support this theory, as they found traces of Yttria on surface layer of the YTZP specimen. Their specimen was exposed to temperature of 1770C in a nitrogen environment for over 5hrs and using an auger electron microscope, they found a yttrium rich surface layer. The listed theories were based on YTZPs mechanism during degradation. Whalen et al identified that the reason for this degradation is the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase at the surface which then eventually spreads to the bulk. They came up with the idea of stabilising the tetragonal phase. This could be done by either of the following two methods: the chemical factor which is increasing the stabiliser content on the surface or the microstructural solution which is reducing the grain size at the surface. The latter was decided upon and this was done by the process of post sintering grinding followed by annealing treatment. 2.45mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 was the material involved in the research. Samples of the material were made using isostatic pressing at pressure of 275MPa and then sintered at a temperature of 15000C for a time period of 2hrs. A 2mm disk was formed of which its two sides had different surfaces treatments, One side being polished and the other being surface grounded. The phase compositions at surfaces were then examined using XRD. The XRD result indicated there was a significant difference in the phase composition of both sides. The ground side showed little transformation change whereas there was 50% increase in monoclinic phase after annealing. This provided evidence that the ground and annealed surface hindered the process of phase transformation from tetragonal to monoclinic at the surface. As a result of this, there were no micro-cracks formed at the surface and hence the expected mechanical properties were achieved. Talk and compare it to mine later (TEM as oppose to XRD, advantages of process) The aim of this project is to provide evidence (if any) of the occurrence of refined grains (recrystallization) in Y-TZP structures as a result of deformation. The ideology used to explain the concept of recrystallization in metals can be used to explain its occurrence in ceramics as this is a new phenomena in the ceramic industry. Grain refinement requires certain conditions in its exposure in polycrystalline ceramics and they are: plastically deforming the material (as a result of applying a stress) and followed by heat treatment. Deformation is basically a change in body shape which occurs as a result of an applied force. Materials may experience either elastic which is impermanent deformation that upon the release of an applied stress is recovered or plastic deformation which is permanent deformation that is non recoverable when a stress is applied. YTZPs recrystallization behaviour can be explained by its ability to plastically deform. The stress and strain behaviour of a material is used to determine the start and the degree of plastic deformation. Figure 6 shows an example of a typical stress and strain curve. Yield tensile strength is the point at which elastic deformation ends and the material begins to plastically deformation. Most polymers and metals undergo elastic followed by plastic deformation but this is not the case for ceramics. They undergo elastic deformation followed by fracture with little or no plastic deformation. YTZP has superplasticity properties and this nature can be used to explain refinement in its microstructure. Plastic deformation is governed by the movement of large numbers of dislocations. Hindering dislocation motion will increase a materials strength. Ceramics are inorganic materials held together by both ionic and covalent bonds. The bonding combination results in hindering the motion of dislocations, hence their high strength but brittle behaviour. Dislocation is an important factor in understanding plastic deformation and so certain elements need to be examined in order to understand the concept. Most materials comprise of an arrangement of atoms referred to as a crystal structure (these can either be single or polycrystalline that is having multiple crystals as the name suggests). This project will focus on polycrystalline zirconia, however understanding single crystals help in explaining the behaviour of polycrystalline materials. All crystal structures have flaws that distort the regular arrangement of the atoms. These flaws can either be point defect (that is they may have vacancies or interstitials), surface, line (dislocations) and volume defects. The activities and effects of all these flaws are interconnected thus the importance in the need to understand them. As the dislocations move, they tend to interact with one another however this interaction is a complex as an amount of dislocations (rephrased from pdf). The collective motion of dislocations leads to gross plastic deformation. http://composite.about.com/library/PR/2001/blmpi1.htm Dislocations can either be screw, edge or a hybrid of both. Edge dislocation: in this dislocation, the line of defect is parallel to the shear stress. The dislocation movement is similar to that of a caterpillar in the sense that the motion is in small amounts at a time. Figure 7shows a typical schematic of the motion of dislocations. A is the extra half plane of atoms. As shear stress is applied, the bond between the upper and lower part of B is broken. The extra atom plane of atom A bonds with the lower part of B converting the lower part to an extra half plane. This motion causes the top half to move with respect to the bottom half. Screw dislocation: this is similar to that of edge in the sense that it also occurs with shear stress however, the defect line is perpendicular to the shear stress as oppose to being parallel. Just like the edge dislocation only a minute fraction of bonds are broken at a given time. Although the motions are different, the overall plastic deformation for both dislocations is the same. The primary mechanism that causes plastic deformation in crystals is called slip. As dislocations move across the crystals, they shear the crystals along their planes of motion. Slip System The degree of ease of motion of dislocations is different with in all crystallographic directions and crystallographic planes of atoms. Normally dislocation motion occurs in a preferred plane and within that plane there are specific directions at also which it occurs. The combination of the plane and direction is referred to as a slip system. The plane at which this motion occurs is referred to as slip plane, and the direction is referred to as slip direction. The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the material. Slip will only occur when the value of applied the shear stress exceeds a certain critical value. The mechanism at which slip occurs is different in single crystals that of polycrystalline materials. Schmid defined the critical shear stress in single crystals as shown in figure 9: Deformation is much more complicated in polycrystalline materials as the crystallography orientations of numerous grains have to be taken into account. This orientation is random and therefore causes the direction of slip to vary from one grain to another. Its complexity extends further more to the grain boundaries which acts as barriers to dislocation motion. Twinning is another mechanism at which plastic deformation can occur. The idea of twinning in plastic deformation is to allow further slip to occur by producing changes in plane orientations. It occurs when a fraction of the crystals adopts an orientation that is correlated to the orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in an exact proportioned way. Figure 10 shows an illustration of an un-deformed crystal with one undergoing slip and twinning. There is a clear difference between slip and twinning. The crystal orientation in a slip is the same above and below the slip plane whereas in twinning differs across the twin plane. More differences is illustrated in figure 11 Slip Twinning Where it occurs Widely spread planes Every plane of region is involved Occurrence On many multiple slip systems simultaneously On a particular plane for each crystal Time required Milli seconds Micro seconds Size (in terms of inter atomic distance) Multiples Fractions. ANNEALING PROCESS LEADING TO RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION AND GRAIN GROWTH Annealing is a high temperature process that causes changes in a materials structure, leading to alterations in its properties. When a material is plastically deformed, majority of the energy is dissipated as heat, but a minute fraction is stored in the material as strain energy which is associated with a range of lattice imperfections established as a result of deformation. The deformation process as well as a number of various factors (such as temperature and rate of deformation) determines the amount of energy stored in the material. A reduction in deformation and an increase in intensity of deformation cause a vast increase in the amount of retained energy. The release of stored energy There are two main techniques of releasing the energy retained by a material due to plastic deformation and they are an-isothermal annealing and isothermal annealing. Anisothermal annealing occurs when the material is continuously heated from a lower temperature to that of a higher one (the energy discharged is determined as a function of temperature) whereas, Isothermal annealing occurs when the temperature is constant. The materials microstructure will undergo either or maybe all of these three restoration processes: recovery, recrystallization and grain growth. The extent of plastic deformation can sometimes determine the mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization. These processes require heat treatment to cause rearrangement of grain boundaries and dislocations. Recovery It is the initial stage of annealing that takes place at the low temperature stage of annealing. As a material is plastically deformed, a minute portion of mechanical energy is stored which exists in crystals as stacking faults, point defects (such defects are interstitials and vacancies) and dislocations. When a material is plastically deformed, it is at a thermodynamically unstable state of higher energy. This is converted to lower energy states by the application of annealing leading to a change in microstructure. There are two process involved in recovery: slip annihilating and polygonization. Slip annihilation occurs when dislocations of opposite signs (that is in the case of edge dislocations, the fusion of the positive and the negative edge dislocation or in the case of screw in which the right hand screw merges with the left hand screw) merge together thereby cancelling each other out. Polygonization is the rearrangement of dislocation after annihilation recovery to a lower energy configuration. During recovery, this strain energy built up is relieved to some extent by dislocation motion, due to enhanced atomic diffusion at high temperatures. Recovery leads to physical properties like thermal and electrical conductivities being recovered to their pre worked states. [ggbk] Recrystallization After recovery, grains are not entirely strain free. That is the energy state of the grains is relatively high. New sets of strain free grains having near equal dimensions in all directions with low dislocation densities are formed. This process is known as recrystallization. This mechanism of producing new equaxed grains is driven by the difference in internal energy between the unstrained and strained material. The process of recrystallization can occur after or during deformation. The manner at which recrystallization occurs is of two kinds which vary with materials. Firstly a continuous manner, at which the microstructure gradually evolves into a recrystallized one or a discontinuous manner at which distinct new grains nucleate and grow Recrystallization after deformation is referred to as static whereas the latter is known as dynamic. The extent at which recrystallization occurs is dependent on two factors namely: time and recrystallization temperature. The temperature at which recrystallization is completed in an hour is referred to as recrystallization temperature. It is usually a third to half the materials melting temperature. The rate at which recovery process occurs is inversely proportional to time (that is it reduces with increasing time). Recrystallization has an entirely different kinetic. During the isothermal annealing, recrystallization starts very slowly then builds up gradually up to a certain point where it slows down. This can be shown in figure 13 In some cases it can be as high 0.7th the melting temperature. An illustration of the relationship between recrystallization temperature and percentage cold work is shown in figure 14. It is understood that as the percentage cold work increases, the recrystallization temperature decreases. Other factors affect the rate and occurrence of recrystallization. The annealing temperature is one of a few factors that have an effect on recrystallization. A materials recrystallization temperature reduces annealing time. The stress applied is another factor both recrystallization and temperature, an increase in stress applied means a lower temperature is required to activate the process. Also, the deformation on the material must be enough to allow nucleation and growth. A process known as grain growth occurs in a polycrystalline material after recrystallization provided the annealing temperature is maintained. The restoration mechanism does not require prior deformation or recrystallization and therefore will occur during annealing in their absence in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundary is the driving force for recovery. Stored energy produced as a result of a material being plastically deformed is released during the process of annealing causing a change in microstructure. This energy released is as a result of various mechanisms due to crystal defect interactions: A decrease in crystal defects due to their reactions with each other. Dislocations with opposite signs interacting causing their annihilation and dislocation loop shrinkage. Relocation of dislocations causing the formation of lower energy configurations such as grain boundaries with low angles. The formation of grain boundaries with high angles. These reactions occur during the restoration process of recovery. After this process, the following can occur: Dislocations as well as point defects being absorbed as a result of the migration of high angle grain boundaries. A decrease in the overall grain boundary area. These micro-structural changes occur during the restoration process of recrystallization and recovery. As a result of these micro-structural modifications, an ideal definition of recrystallization is derived: Along with the micro-structural changes, the properties of the specimen also change correspondingly. Thus, deformation and annealing are important processing methods for producing desired properties of the material by controlling its microstructures. Recrystallization mechanism The start of recrystallization is referred to as nucleation and occurs when dislocations are rearranged so as to form low dislocation density sections that have a high angle grain boundary with great mobility and thus is capable of quick movement over the strained region or recovered matrix. Recrystallization has a low driving force and high grain boundary energies; as a result of these characteristics, thermal variations cannot explain regions surrounded by high angle grain boundaries that are free from defects upon annealing. Therefore, the formation of recrystallized grains does not occur during annealing but previously exists in the deformed state. Three methods can be used to describe nucleation and they are: Movement of high angle boundaries that already exist before annealing: this happens when pre existing grain boundaries move into grains that are highly strained as illustrated in figure 16 this process requires a favourable energy balance between an increase in the overall grain boundary surface and a reduction in stored energy as a result of the removal defects triggered by the migration of the boundary. Movement of sub boundaries (that is low angle boundaries): this model is based on the theory of polygonization where stored energy is reduced during annealing as a result of rearrangement and removal of defects. It occurs when sub grain boundaries besiege regions containing low dislocation densities. Upon formation of sub grains, with the help of sub grain boundary movement, they are able to grow at the expense their neighbouring grains. Dislocations are absorbed by migrating sub boundaries and because of this, their mobility, orientation differences and energies are increased until their transformation into high angle boundaries, thus illustrating nucleation. Sub grains coalescence: this occurs when two neighbouring subgrains merge leading to their crystal lattices coinciding. It is regarded as a slow process but when compared to migration of sub grains is favoured for annealing at low temperatures. it is illustrated in figure 17. In this method, stored energy is reduced leading sub boundaries disappearing, sub grains growing and increase in orientation differences between coalescence groups and their neighbouring sub grains. These lead to the formation of high angle boundaries which move at high speeds and cause the process of recrystallization nucleation. It is vital to identify the fact that the total energy balance that takes the disappearance of sub boundaries into account with the increase and orientation difference is favourable (that is it leads to a reduction in total free energy). This mechanism is illustrated in figure 18. The occurrence of these three models is relatively diverse and they will therefore occur under different conditions. The basic requirement for the occurrence of the movement of pre existing grain boundaries that is the existence of differences in large strain between neighbouring grains is well accepted by researchers. However, there is conflict as to when the mechanisms sub grain boundaries migration and the coalescence of sub grains occur. Researchers believed the coalescence of sub grain boundaries are linked with large dispersion of sub grain angles distribution, relatively moderate strain, and reasonably low annealing temperatures. Whereas the mechanism of sub grain migration is linked with high annealing temperatures, strains that are relatively high and large dispersion in the distribution in sub grain size. Growth of recrystallized regions The basic mechanism causing recrystallization and grain growth is the migration of grain boundaries with high angles. However their driving force is what differentiates them from each other. The energy of the high angled grain boundaries is the main driving force for grain growth whether it being abnormal or normal growth. Whereas that for recrystallization is the energy stored during straining appeared as crystalline defects. In defect free regions that are encircled by boundaries with high angle, recrystallization progresses by enlargement of this nucleus over the non recrystallized medium. Grain growth and recrystallizations migrating high angle boundary curvature signal is another important factor that differentiates the two. http://asmcommunity.asminternational.org/portal/site/www/AsmStore/ProductDetails/?vgnextoid=a75a7dcbe4e18110VgnVCM100000701e010aRCRD ASM Handbook Volume 14A, Metalworking: Bulk Forming (ASM International) http://www.accuratus.com/zirc.html http://www.totaljoints.info/ceramic_for_total_hips.htm#2 http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=940 http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eUZw4SgqaPYCpg=PA126lpg=PA126dq=phase+transformation+mechanism+leading+to+microcracks+zirconiasource=blots=fCFhf-satfsig=WNiOjbUtX06mA_d1NkXIEEHcOsshl=enei=r568S9zCKJHFsgaxkd3lCQsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=4ved=0CBYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepageqf=false EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Equipment Three samples of YTZP, 0ne made from 3mol Y2O3/ZrO2 powder and the other two made from the same powder but by two other manufacturers. Focused Ion Beam (FIB): is a technique used by material scientists in the analysis of a materials microstructure. the samples obtained can either be analysed directly using the FIB or transferred and viewed under a TEM or SEM. This process is similar to that of an SEM however ions (particularly gallium ions) rather than electrons. Figures 19a and b show how the FIB operates. The surface of the sample being tested is subjected to primary gallium ion beams. This spits a small part of the material, leading to the formation of either secondary ions (either positive or negative) or neutral atoms on the surface. Secondary electrons (e) are also produced from the gallium beam. This is collected as well as the signal from the split ions to form an image which is either analyzed using the FIB itself, SEM or TEM. http://www.fibics.com/fib/tutorials/introduction-focused-ion-beam-systems/4/ images is from here. GNU image manipulation program (GIMP): is an image editing software used to measure grain sizes. Vickers indentation: is used to form indentations which are viewed and studied under an optical microscope. A square imprint is formed from the Vickers indenter, where the two diagonal lengths are measured. In this project, the Vickers indentation is used to form plastic deformation. The surface defects such as scratches and unevenness need to be controlled, hence the reason for polishing. High temperature furnace: used for sintering and annealing. TEM Cold isostatic pressing Sample preparation Three mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 solid solution powder was used in this experiment. The powder was pressed into a disc at 200MPa, then sintered at 14500C for 2 hours. Two discs were produced, each pressed with loads 7.5 tons and 5 tons respectively. The load was reduced to 5 inorder to reduce the chance of lamination, as it occurred with the 7.5. Measurements and dimensions Sample 1: broken Sample 2 Weight 25.7711g 19.6836g Diameter 39.23 39.11 Height (thickness) 7.1 6.51 Dimensions after sintering<

Employment and Absenteeism Problem Essay

Absenteeism refers to unauthorised absence of the worker from his job. According to Benefits Interface (Edited 2010: 1 of 4) absenteeism can be defined as ‘failure of employees to report for work when they are scheduled to work’. Employees who are away from work on recognized holidays, vacations, approved leaves of absence allowed for under the collective agreement provisions are not included. In South Africa, managers consider absenteeism their most serious discipline problem (Nadlangisa, 2003). Absenteeism is not unique to any particular geographical area or industry. It is a major problem for every organisation, particularly since downsizing and other lean changes have left employers with a smaller workforce (Grobler, Warnich, et al, 2006: 123) According to a recent study conducted by AIC Insurance, companies and the country’s economy are losing more than R12 billion annually due to absenteeism in South Africa. In 2000, 0. 7 million workers were absent from work, which is a fraction compared to the 397% leap it took up until 2012 (Goldberg, 2012). Employees are often considered to be a company’s most valuable asset and according to Hamilton-Atwell (2003: 56-61) one of the best ways to increase profitably is by increasing the returns on this asset. Reducing absenteeism is one of the most overlooked methods of reducing costs According to Goldberg (2012) managing absence is critical for all organisations, as the negative impact that they feel with regards to efficiency, operations and cost- effectiveness is enormous. Whatever the causes, absenteeism is costing the country and its businesses heavily and therefore needs to be addressed. Many employers, however, choose to disregard the possibility that there may be issues in the workplace causing poor performance and absenteeism. It makes sound economic sense to address any such issues and pro-actively encourage improved employee performance. This research framework focuses on a medium-sized local organisation, which has asked to not be mentioned. Therefore it shall be referred to as Organisation X. 3 2. Problem identification The failure to show up for work creates problems of varying degrees for managers and administrators. Excessive employee absenteeism can decrease productivity and profits significantly, creating numerous problems for supervisors and the employees who work regularly (Carrell & Kuzmits, 1992: 735). 2. 1. Problem Statement The motivation for this research will be discussed by highlighting problems related to employee absenteeism as experienced within Organisation X Main Problem Unauthorized employee absenteeism from Organisation X and the actions that might be implemented to reduce this due to the fact that absenteeism causes a liability to the company. Sub-Problems The unauthorised employee absenteeism is leading to an overall decrease in: i. Cost- effectiveness – Profitability ii. Operations – Production iii. Efficiency – Competitiveness 2. 2. Explanation of problems: Financial Costs Overtime and agency costs for replacing workers are incurred. Administrative Costs Staff time required to secure replacement employees and to re-assign the remaining employees. Staff time is required to maintain and control absenteeism. 4 Decrease in Productivity The employees that come to work daily carry an extra workload and support new or replacement staff. Also they are required to train and orient new or replacement workers, which cause them to neglect and disregard their own work. The work group itself has a considerable stake in absenteeism, particularly with respect to morale. People in work groups are very sensitive to equity. If one member takes excessive and perceived inappropriate absences without some equitable cost to that individual, other group members are often affected. They take revenge by going absent themselves, o lowering the productivity of the group as a whole (Furham, 2000: 377). Possible reasons for the absenteeism rate in Organisation X Lack of commitment Employees are simply not interested in their work or concerned about the success of the organization. This can stem from low wages or low employee morale, which might be caused by poor treatment by management or an unpleasant working environment. Also the length of service within the company will determine the commitment to the work and the workplace. Lack of consequence The lack of consequences, e. g. no incentives for strong attendance or no punishment for poor attendance leads to increased absenteeism of the employees. Also employee packages that allow for a lot of absence can lead to workers abusing this. Poor working conditions Employees might feel that they receive poor treatment from managers, work in an unpleasant or stressful working environment, have long working hours a lack of breaks, are given an excessive workload or there is too much strict supervision. Personal factors Although there is a fair bit of absenteeism that could have been avoided, employees are often away from work for ‘valid’ reasons. Examples may include domestic 5 problems (bad housing conditions, family issues) and consequent worries, social and religious causes, problems with transport facilities or accidents/ illnesses (Hamilton-Atwell, 2003: 82-95) 2. 3. Research questions I. What are the main factors causing employees to be absent from work? II. Is one specific group of people more absent than another (e. g. male/female, old/young)? III. What are the current disciplinary actions within Organisation X’s Human Resource Department? IV. What is the behaviour of the employees towards these disciplinary actions? V. What are the possible and most suitable solutions for Organisation X? 2. 4. Possible solutions for the absenteeism problem include, but are not limited to the following: Consequences To avoid absenteeism as much as possible the company should implement positive/ negative consequences for strong/ weak attendance. Examples may include offering rewards and incentives, e. g. monetary bonuses, simple raise or recognition (Employee of the month) for strong attendance and punish employees with poor records and unexcused absence (Gitman & McDaniel, 2008: 248). Work-Life Balance According to Chick (2004: 67) managers should allow employees to be able to have or create a work-life balance, as this can reduce the stress levels they are exposed to. Dual income households have increased over the last decades and longer working hours are expected. Managers need to help their employees to manage the numerous and sometimes competing demands in their lives. Employees need to achieve a balance between their work responsibilities and their personal life (Gitman & McDaniel, 2008: 251). Follow-ups The Supervisors need to sit down with the employees when they return from an absence to discuss the reason for absence, if the absence could have been 6 prevented and the implications of absenteeism on the company (if it is a common occurrence for this employee). 3. Hypotheses I. Females are more absent from work then men II. Individuals in any relationship are more absent than singles III. Employees with children are more absent than those without children IV. Employees below 40 are absent from work more frequently V. Current disciplinary actions are not perceived as a reason for employees to reduce the absenteeism VI. Implementing other stricter disciplinary actions will reduce the rate of employee absenteeism 4. Objectives The Objectives of the project are: To understand and analyze: I. The main causes of absenteeism in Organisation X. II. The current disciplinary actions taken by the HR department for reducing absenteeism. III. The attitude of employees towards these disciplinary actions. IV. The factors to be considered in order to reduce absenteeism. V. Suggestions that can be given to the management to improve the regular attendance of the employees in the company.

Political Satire Political Humor - 1638 Words

Political Satire: Political Humor in Comic Strips and Mainstream Media When we watch the news, the events in the world of politics are discussed, we would hear about the showdown in Capitol Hill about a vote to appeal tax benefits or the President of the United States getting involved in the siege of war between two countries. But with a serious tone including humorous effects, political satire is expressed in comic strips in the back of your Sunday paper. Satire isn’t only relegated to comic strips but also it is found in TV shows such as the Daily Show with Jon Stewart, the Colbert report, and Saturday night live and their fake news segment called â€Å"Weekend Update† are prime examples of political satire; they use the current events†¦show more content†¦Stewart takes the news of the day and summarizes in a satiric tone. The success of the daily show brings in viewers of a demographic of young adults who tend to get their political news from the show rather than the headlines of other shows on the news cable networks like CNN, MSNBC, or Fox News. At one point, a culture war ignited between the Daily Show and Fox News. Author David Grondin comments on the culture war that â€Å"As a satirical TV show that has made Fox News shows one of its main targets (especially for its negative coverage of the Obama presidency), The Daily Show openly seeks to blur the lines between the real and the fake, entertainment and news—and O’Reilly’s and Beck’s shows were often picked on by Stewart in the ï ¬ rst two years of the Obama presidency. Despite all the criticism and negativity, the daily show continues to make people laugh the light-hearted look at Washington and beyond. Another television show that uses political satire every weeknight along with the daily show is their spinoff program called the Colbert report. The Colbert Report is a nightly program where Stephen Colbert, a former cast member of the daily show, takes his own personal views of the current events and politics. The American flag is a major banner on the show as the color and likeness is used on the program, the show also takes inspiration off some political viewpoint programs including parodying commentator Bill O’Reilly’s program, theShow MoreRelatedPolitics Is A Joke ! Essay1638 Words   |  7 PagesPolitics Is A Joke! Or Is It Really? By: Joshua McCray Dr. Kenneth Mulligan Political Science 314I-950 Paper 2 The book â€Å"Politics is A Joke! How TV Comedians Are Remaking Political Life† written by S. Robert Lichter, Jody C. Baumgartner, and Jonathan S. Morris, describes the influence of late night tv show comedians and their role in modern politics. Conan, The Colbert Report, Saturday Night Live, and many late-night comedy shows exist. These shows have played a major role in American politicsRead MoreSatire As A Popular Form Of Satire1251 Words   |  6 Pagestypes satire in their search bar, the definition found is, â€Å"Satire is defined as the use of the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people s stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues.† Political satire is a very popular form of satire, it’s used as a way to gain entertainment from politics, a way to voice opinions in a comedic biting style, and to further arguments in a way that others can’t. Political satir eRead MoreSatire in A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift745 Words   |  3 PagesYou can’t make fun of what isn’t real. 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Typically in politics, this causes bad blood betweenRead MoreAristophanes Making Fun of Socrates in His Plays: An Analysis1039 Words   |  5 PagesPolitical philosophy is the attempt to understand the foundations of society that we are in today. In order to understand current political situation we have to try to read and recognize early writings on political philosophy, Some of the earlier works by Plato called The Republic, in the piece there are conversations between characters Socrates and Glaucon, Aristophanes, Adeimantus where they try and explain ideas and views of justice and what a truly just man and/or just state would appearRead MoreSatire In Herman Melvilles Moby Dick1239 Words   |  5 PagesSatire in Herman Melville’s Moby Dick Herman Melville’s Moby Dick is a parting from the traditional conception of the Anglo-European novel in underlying the idea of the self as opposed to society, or, the human being in contrast to the universe. Many of Melville’s themes are typical of American Romanticism: the â€Å"isolated self† and the difficulty of self-revelation, the imperfections of human knowledge, the contrast between immorality and virtue, and the pursuit of the truth. Although Melville intendedRead MoreEssay on South Park Satire1147 Words   |  5 PagesScrew you guys, I’m going home Ever since 1997, South Park has revolutionized the cable TV scene as a profane and obscene program that isn’t afraid to mock religious, political, and cultural topics and not get away with at least offending somebody. Throughout its twelve seasons, some of the most prominent events in pop culture have suffered the wrath of ridicule from the show’s creators, Matt Stone and Trey Parker, and succeeded in making millions of Americans laugh until they cry. The creative

Conflict Style Management - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 501 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/09/20 Category Management Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Review of Personal Conflict Management What is CONFLICT? : Conflict, according to Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications, Fifth Canadian Edition text by Nancy Langton, Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge, the definition is â€Å"a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about. Conflict Management Style Questionnaire: This is questionnaire deals with how a person deals with conflict and the style and techniques they use in order to handle disputes and differences. According to this 12 question questionnaire, I am a collaborator. This means, according to the results definition within the questionnaire, I am both assertive and cooperative, which is the opposite of avoiding. Collaborating involves an attempt to work with the other person to find some solution which fully satisfies the concerns of both persons. It means digging into an issue to identify the underlying concerns. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Conflict Style Management" essay for you Create order Collaborating between two persons might take the form of exploring a disagreement to learn from one another’s insights, concluding to resolve some condition which would otherwise have them competing for resources, or confronting and trying to find a creative solution to an interpersonal problem. Conflict Style Questionnaire A: This questionnaire has 30 questions and you are to select the statement that best represents your most likely response. The end result is to see what your conflict style is. Is it competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding or accommodating. According to this test I am tied between Compromising and avoiding. This is a different outcome then the Conflict Management Style questionnaire above. Assessing My Preferred Style of Conflict Resolution Questionnaire: This questionnaire has 30 questions and asses your current style of conflict resolution. According to this scoring key, I am tied with confronting and compromising. This has some of the same results as above. I actually enjoyed the third questionnaire the most. I believe that this is more of the kind of person I am in regards to dealing with conflict. I like to confront it and deal with it and resolve it with a compromise. I do not believe that I avoid conflicts. To avoid a conflict in my opinion only leads to harsh feels and a possible increase of frustration later on which can lead to a large heated argument and possibly become violent. This is not something that I would do nor would I leave a situation that could come to this. Should I feel a conflict become violent, I will avoid it, this is the ONLY time I would ever so this. In conclusion, they are all similar â€Å"tests† but I feel that the third questionnaire (test) was the best one that defines me and how I deal with conflict, within the professional working environment. CITED REFERENCES: Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications, Fifth Canadian Edition text by Nancy Langton, Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge Three questionnaires provided by instructor for Conflict Management Style questionnaire, Conflict Style Questionnaire A and Assessing My Preferred Style of Conflict Resolution Questionnaire.

Marketing Management Brand Loyalty - 1913 Words

The primary focus of this research is to develop and understanding the reasons for brand loyalty, as there is a literature gap in this area of marketing management. A lot of researches been done in the past on the benefits of brand loyalty but there is a literature gap on how an organisation can build brand loyalty. The literature of market is still debating of what compromises brand loyalty (Chaudhuri Holbrook, 2001). The literature review analyses the general theories surrounding the concept of brand loyalty in previously adapted marketing management guidance, marketing science and the human communication researches with an indication as how understanding the factors contributing brand loyalty can actually help organisations to build brand loyalty amongst consumers. The sources used for the literature review are journal of management, information quarterly, textbooks, academic blogs, and official website publications. The structure of literature review begins with of definition of brand loyalty and then moves to the general theories surrounding factors contributing for brand loyalty d then a focused research on Apple’s achievement of brand loyalty. Brand Loyalty According to Bennett, Brand Loyalty has been existence since the 1920’s (Bennett Rundle-Thiele, 2002). Brand loyalty can simply be defined as the prejudiced behavioural purchase by consumers over the time with respect of one brand in comparison of other brands with similar functions due to psychologicalShow MoreRelatedResearch Proposal on Brand Loyalty in Mobile Phone Market1416 Words   |  6 PagesI. Introduction 1. Problem Statement A number of papers have discussed about the factors that influence a consumer’s brand loyalty, such as An empirical model for brand loyalty measurement (Punniyamoorthy, M and Prasanna Mohan Raj, 2007), or â€Å"The relation between Brand Loyalty, Product Involvement and Information Search† (Ai Lin Lim, 1999). Although both of the researches mentioned above reached some conclusions about their topics, it is our initial assumption that these conclusions will beRead MoreBrand Management; Influence on Consumers’ Behaviour and Satisfaction1103 Words   |  5 Pagesimage. As a result, companies create own brands. According to American Marketing Association (2013), a brand is â€Å"a name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one sellers good or service as distinct from those of other sellers.† Also, the process of creating connection or association between emotional perception of the consumer and company’s product with target of cre ating distinction and building loyalty has known as a brand management (Hislop, 2001). For instance when someoneRead MoreThe main concept of brand loyalty has been approached from three different factors which is600 Words   |  3 PagesThe main concept of brand loyalty has been approached from three different factors which is behavioral, attitudinal and composite loyalty. The researchers have their own assumption or known as behavioral view which they assume that the loyalty of a guest toward a brand is based on the repeat transactions occur. The study of O’Malley (1988) show that this approach provides a more realistic picture on how well the brand is performing compare to other competitors. However, this approach have been criticizedRead MoreCase Study on LOreal Essay1636 Words   |  7 PagesExecutive Summary L’Oreal was the world largest French-based cosmetic company, achieved successfully in global marketing with businesses in East and Western Europe, North America, Latin America, Asia and some other countries. Later, they spotted on China as a potential cosmetics market due to its extremely high population and entered the Chinese market to compete with other cosmetic brands as a late entrant. This report attempts to discuss on L’Oreal’s expansion in China. For example, in order toRead MoreComparative Analysis: Funnel Based Marketing Relative to Consumer Decision Journey Processes1725 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Branding in the Digital Age Introduction In the article Branding in the Digital Age (Edelman, 2010) author and research David Edelman successfully illustrates how the Internet has re-ordered the balance of power between consumers and the brands they develop loyalty to over the long-term. His premise of the article is based on how successfully the Internet is transforming buying decisions into a more egalitarian- and trust-based relationship between marketer and customer. The concepts he bases his CustomerRead MoreTrue Brand Loyalty1659 Words   |  7 Pagesconsumers that will switch brands or products as soon as the feel the need to do so. What companys look for in this consumer environment is creating a so-called brand loyalty. This paper will explore the ways companies go about in creating this brand loyalty and it will investigate the circumstances and effects that come with it. It will start of by thoroughly explaining what brand loyalty exactly is. After that an overview of key success factors stimulating brand loyalty will be given and we willRead MoreWhy Customer Loyalty Should Influence Marketing Strategy1375 Words   |  6 PagesThe concept of Customer Loyalty can be seen in the work of Deming in his TQM model but the modern more detailed definition was derived from the work of Storbacka, Strandvik, and Gronroos (1994) in the area of service quality models. Relationship marketing places great emphasis on customer lifetime value. 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When viewer click into the organisation’s website, the first sight is fall on the homepage. Homepage can decide how truly the viewers are engaging

Impacts of Indian Cinema on Children of Pakistan Free Essays

The Indian Cinema is currently the Largest film producer in the world. The film industry has been highly rewarding when it comes to the national economy of India. Be it movies, to movie stars, the idea and the drama they portray has been highly admired and enjoyed by people worldwide especially in Pakistan. We will write a custom essay sample on Impacts of Indian Cinema on Children of Pakistan or any similar topic only for you Order Now Thousands of films produced per annum are watched by millions of people from children to adults. And is a big source of encouragement for the Youth to come up and be a part of the largest industry in the world. It might be a huge source of encouragement for the Youth but on the other hand the films have proved to have influenced the young generations on a huge scale in this era. As most of the tech-smart are basically the young generations today, they automatically have access to all sort of media and public forums. Teenagers especially today are too inspired by movies today, they look for motivation and situations they find relatable in their daily life as entertainment. Prior to that, Indian Cinema is well aware what kind of audience to Target today, which is earning alot of revenue for them today. Especially in Pakistan, us Pakistani enjoy and idolize our favorite Indian movies and actors. Every country promoted their religion, tradition and culture through media and India has been quite successful in doing that. Today our Muslim children have memorized all the rituals that are performed in exorcism movies ( I.e; 1920 the movie) and all the Hindu prayers instead of what’s in the Quran and its message. Furthermore Indian movies always come up with a feature song, which basically is also known as Item Song. Which features famous actresses for a dance performance in the movie. Such movies have been a huge source of negativity in our country. Indian movies promote nudity and vulgarity which is strictly forbidden in the laws of Islam. The young generations is very much attracted to such movies, songs and stars, which have proved to be very normal. The sad part is that even parents are so outdated from technology they have no idea about the current affairs and what their children are doing on their devices. Our Film Industry seems highly motivated to compete the Indian Cinema too, as they in their recent movies have been featuring Item Songs (i.e Karachi se Lahore). There are various Indian Movies that have been produced to promote rivalry between Pakistan and India which has been a very huge point of negativity leading to recreation of history. This has created a negative image about Pakistan in the minds of our children because the Indian Cinema has blinded the youth by showing false glories and fabricated history to encourage the greatness of Hindustan. The young minds in return get double minded and curious to know what exactly is behind the story and not everyonr is able to prove what actually happened because our elders and seniors, they themselves have been idolizing the Indian Cinema throughout ages. On the brighter side, there are a few positive impacts too, movies like Tarey Zameen Par, 3 Idiots have been quite encouraging and inspirational for the whole nations as the stories they portray have effected A lot of minds from teachers to students who has changed alot of perspectives of people regarding studies. LITERATURE REVIEW With the collaboration of British film Institute, UK film Council and film London both have explored on the local celluloid. They’ve depicted and looked into the impact of Local cinema on their communities and to develop impact measurement tools, they selected 5 case study cinemas and initial desk researches to explore existing literature on the impact measurement methodologies. They dabbled cinemas of the urban and rural areas of UK. And the research they discoursed and depicted the social, cultural and environmental impacts of Local cinema and overview of income and expenditure on and of cinema. Suraj pratap had some aims behind this desertation which was to analyze the relation of cinnama and Society. There were personal references of the Indian audience on the basis of interest. They discussed the impact of cinema on audience and understood the factors of bollywood either it’d be positive or negative. He implemented the method in which he conducted the number of studies across the world letting in India. They have researched on the students that how science fiction films has an effect on them. Even nowadays Hollywood industry is working on the sci-fic movies way too much and the way modern world is going ahead, students have gained interest in these sort of movies. They’ve studied context and participants have collected data. They found this by naturalistic research method, students who watched this science fiction movies had some number of misunderstandings about earth science concepts as compared to the students who don’t watch the movies. It effects negatively and makes a false concept of Science phenomena. They researched just to get the answer of the question as title mentioned it, 3D movies has the genre where viewers can imagine that all the scenes are having the plave infront of them and all scenerios are in real. We are just going in the flow with the movie and creates the fiction place, characters and story. The methods they used in this research was the sickness questionaire in which they study if it effecting the children negatively as rays may effects them negatively on the other hand they study the design and its eligibility and they made the stastical analysis too. Its a research in which linda rufer defines how movies are effecting children and teenagers psycological manner, where she connects movies with the emotions of children as viewers they connects the fictional movie with themselves as films has the feel of words and actions. Linda describes the positivity in movies many characters have pure soul with the positivity in it where children can get motivation and let them think about their lives, gives hope and energy. Discussion about the category and traits in the research is visible, movies helps children to differenciate between the wrong and right path where teamwork and other good habits like forgiving, being down to earth and many others like this may help teens to get themselves on the road of success. RESEARCH METHADOLOGY Qualative method will be use in this research, Where I will choose 5 to 10 movies as case study to find the objectives and characters of the movies and how they are effecting on the children of pakistan. I will conduct a small interview with the parents in which I discuss the routine of their children and which sort of things children pick after watching movies it leads me to get the answers of my questions. HYPOTHESIS NULL HYPOTHESIS: Ho Indian movies has vulgarity and unacceptable elements for the children. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS: HI Indian movies has not vulgarity and unacceptable elements for the children. REFERENCES : British film institute, UK film council, Film LONDON ( 5 November 2005 ). THE IMPACT OF LOCAL CINEMA Suraj Pratap Singh, Banaras hindu university ( Dept. Of Sociology ) Varanasi 22001 ( 4 feb 2015 ) IMPACT OF CINEMA ON YOUTH Heather Barnett, heather Wagner, Anne Gatling, Janice Anderson, Meredith Houle, Alan Kafka ( 25 August 2006 ). IMPACT OF SCIENCE FICTION ON STUDENT UNDERSTANDINGS OF SCIENCE. Angelo G., Solimini ( 13 Feb 2013 ). ARE THERE SIDE EFFECTS TO WATCHING 3D MOVIES? Linda Rufer, University of Pennsylvania ( 1 August 2014 ). MAGIC AT THE MOVIES: POSITIVE PSYCOLOGY FOR CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS AND FAMILIES. How to cite Impacts of Indian Cinema on Children of Pakistan, Papers

Nocturnal Awakening And Frequent Crying †Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss About The Nocturnal Awakening And Frequent Crying? Answer: Introduction: Nocturnal awakening and frequent crying episode in young children gives major challenges to parents while caring for their children. Bed time problem and night awakening affect about 20 to 30% of infants and toddlers. This problem initiating in infancy often persist in school age too. This is found to have deleterious effect on children such as poor cognitive development, mood problems, aggressive behavior and attention deficit. All this consequently has an impact on health and quality of life of children too. In case of parents, crying episodes and nocturnal awakening in children increases their distress level due to fatigue and lack of sleep (Honaker and Meltzer 2014) Hence, there is a need to find strategies or intervention to manage bedtime tantrums of children. The research by Rickert and Johnson (1988) identified the intervention of scheduled awakening as an effective strategy to reduce and gradually eliminate the crying episodes and night awakening in young children. The study mainly evaluated the effectiveness of scheduled awakening by comparing it with systematic ignoring procedure. The scheduled awakening intervention is the business process of waking and consoling a child 15 to 30 minute before nocturnal awakening to assist in sleep consolidation. The maturation in sleep pattern was analysed by means including a no treatment group without the intervention too. This report critically analysed the research study by comparing it with recent literature on the same issue to assess whether such intervention should be funded or not. Hence, the decision for funding the intervention depends on its critical appraisal by means of relevant CASP tool Search strategy: To analyse the effectiveness of scheduled awakening in reducing nocturnal awakening in young children, there is a need to review recent research literatures related to the topic to find out whether same strategies or other interventions has been proposed for addressing the research problem. The main strategy for searching the research article is to include only those articles which have been published between 2007 and 2017. The other inclusion criteria for articles includes they must be peer reviewed journal articles written in English and they must cover the strategies to manage nocturnal awakening in young children. The relevant research articles were retrieved from the databases like CINAHL, PubMed, Cochrane library and the search engine called Google Scholar. The key search term used in searching the articles included nocturnal awakening and crying episodes in young children, intervention for nocturnal awakening in infants and strategies to address nocturnal awakening issues in c hildren. The inclusion criteria and specific search term can help to review current studies and evaluate current interventions proposed for the same issue. Literature search: The key findings from the review of literature are as follows: Author and date Intervention Key findings Honaker and Meltzer (2014). It analysed the effect of behavioral interventions on bedtime problem and night awakening Almost 94% studies reported efficacious outcome and clinical improvement in young children by using behavioral therapy. Support was given to interventions like scheduled awakening and positive routine Meltzer and Mindell, 2014 Behavioral interventions like graduated extinction, parent education, bedtime fading, scheduled awakening was evaluated for their effect in sleep consolidation Behavioral treatment resulted in improvement in childrens sleep onset latency and night waking frequency, however there is lack of studies that identified factors needed for success of treatment. Vriend and Corkum, (2011) Clinical management of behavioral insomnia It explained about different form of interventions for behavioral insomnia such as pharmacological intervention, behavioral treatment and sleep treatments. Behavioral treatment was found to be the first in line treatment for the night awakening Werner et al. (2015) The Zurich 3 concept for the management of sleep disorder in children. This process combines the sleep regulation model on introducing regular rhythm with adjusting bed time with behavioral strategies. The intervention was found to decrease nocturnal wake duration of children and increase night sleep duration. Price et al. (2012) Evaluation of behavioral infant sleep intervention to improve infant sleep Sleep intervention has no long term impact and parents can use their technique only for managing short to medium term sleep problems and maternal depression Critical appraisal: As the research study by Rickert and Johnson (1988) is based on randomized controlled method, the CASP tool for randomized controlled trial has been applied for critically appraising the articles. The results of the appraisal are as follows: Validity of the results of the study Presence of focused issue in the study: Rickert and Johnson (1988) gave clear indication of the focused issue in the study by clearly stating the main purpose of research. The main aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of scheduled awakening and systematic ignoring procedures (intervention) for decreasing awakening and crying episodes in infants and young children (population). Hence, the main intervention was scheduled awakening and systematic ignoring and the comparator was no treatment condition Process of allocation: In RCT studies, random allocation process is needed to randomly assign participants to treatment and control group. When this process is done correctly, it is effective in reducing bias in the system. Therefore, the two critical aspects of the random allocation process is developing random sequence and concealing the treatment before patients have been assigned to specific groups (Dettori 2010). The participants for the randomized controlled trial included 33 children with average age of 20 months and they were recruited via local newspaper advertisements. All the children were economy assigned to treatment group and control group before home visit (Rickert and Johnson 1988). Hence, it is confirmed that allocation sequence were concealed from researcher and patients as parents got to know about their assigned group only after data was collected regarding each childs daily schedule (duration of time awake for the day, feeding time, duration when child spontaneously woke up and cried a nd unusual situations disrupting routine) for 9 nine weeks. Treatment of patients who entered the trial: To assess whether all participants who entered the trial were properly accounted for its conclusion or not, it is necessary that complete follow up of patient is done and researcher analyze the outcome in participants assigned to specific group. In this context, anomalies have been found in the treatment of group in the study. For instance, at first children were randomly assigned to control, scheduled awakening or systematic ignoring group. However, as many children dropped out in between, only 33 participants remained for the study out of 56. To ensure that all participants were analyzed in their assigned group, parents were asked to report seven days prior to treatment. This helped in maintaining baseline data for the study. The maintenance of baseline data reflects the validity and transparency of the study as it helps in effectively interpreting the study results (Deke and Puma 2013). Blinding to treatment Blinding in randomized controlled trial is done by having procedures that prevents participants and assessors from knowing which intervention was given to them. However, it is impossible to achieve blinding in studies, because for evaluating the outcome of the studies, active engagement of participants is required. In the research study by Rickert and Johnson (1988), all children and their parents were randomly assigned to treatment. This means allocation to treatment was concealed from them, however it cannot be said that they were blinded to treatment too. They were randomly assigned to control and the two intervention group and participants got to know about their assigned group only after data related to the history of spontaneous awakening in each child were collected. Hence, open labeling in this study was seen which did not fulfilled the blinding criteria and this may lead to biasness too. In a similar RCT study done to evaluate the effectiveness of behavioral sleep interventi on, infants were selected on the basis of parents reported sleep problem, however the difference in approach from the above study was that allocation was concealed and only researchers but not parents were blinded to group allocation (Price et al. 2012). Similarity of the groups at the start of the trial While evaluating the quality of a RCT study, the similarity of the group at the start of the trial is denoted by baseline factors such as age, sex, social class, education and health status. Keeping these baseline parameters similar is critical for maintain the validity of the study because baselines factors also influence study outcome and effect of interventions (Higgins et al. 2011). Rickert and Johnson (1988) maintained the similarity of group at the start by taking children in the age group of 6 to 54 months. However, biasness in baseline factors was that same social factor was not maintained. For instance, there were single parent families as well as two-parent families. Difference in level of education of parents was also seen which might have great impact on the study outcome. Such baseline recruitment is not maintained in many other studies too. Equal treatment of the group: Equal treatment of the group in randomized controlled trial is maintained if researcher can identify any other factors apart from the intervention that might have an impact on performance on each participant. Rickert and Johnson (1988) equally treated the group by means of exclusion criteria for recruiting the participants. For instance, since two interventions- scheduled awakening and systematic ignoring was compared in this study, researchers took care to eliminate all those factors that could have an impact on interventions. Hence, the main consideration for the researcher was to exclude those parents who did not had concern regarding spontaneous awakening. Secondly, children who resisted in going to bed were excluded because scheduled awakening is not meant to address this problem and this could have an impact on study outcome. In addition, the researcher also analysed the baseline data for age and number of night awakening episodes to determine difference in groups according to baseline factors. Vastness of treatment effect In RCT studies, treatment effect is understood from the method of comparison between outcome in intervention and control group. While comparing the decrease in the number of spontaneous awakening and crying episodes in each group, it was found that children in systematic ignoring group has faster rate of positive outcome in 8 weeks period. Another significant result from the study was that scheduled awakening was also considered to be effective in reducing night awakening, however the change or improvement in symptoms was slow in this case. The researcher also specified the period at which major difference in outcome in three groups were seen and this was observed mainly in week 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (Rickert and Johnson 1988). Hence, it can be said that be evaluating treatment groups in the order of intervention, the first place was taken by systematic ignoring condition followed by scheduled awakening and then the no treatment group. This result is also consistent with a study reviewing sleep management interventions as the study showed that systematically ignoring the demands of children for specific periods was effective in improving sleep patterns in children (Halal. and Nunes 2014). Estimate of the treatment effect The precision of the treatment effect in RCT studies is determined on the basis of confidence interval and effect size. This means that narrow confidence interval will denote clear precision in results, whereas wider interval is an indication of greater uncertainty in results. While evaluating Rickert and Johnson (1988) study on the basis of precision of its results, it can be said that the confidence interval is wide because great variability in control group and developmental trends were seen. This indicates that more research is needed to identify why children in no treatment group showed improvement in outcome. Despite this limitation, the study was successful in proving that systematic ignoring and scheduled awakening have positive effect in reducing sleep related behavioral issues in infants. Another study by ?rn?ec, Matthey and Nemeth, (2010) is most appropriate to justify this study outcome because the study was about the behavioral approaches of systematic ignoring and sched uled awakening only. The study proved the efficacy of the intervention. Application of the study result The success of any research is understood when the research provided effective and validated evidence regarding applying the intervention is local population. The generalisability and transferability of a research is high if same intervention can be easily applied in local population. In the RCT study reviewing the effectiveness of systematic ignoring and nocturnal scheduling, it can be said that although systematic ignoring gave better outcome, however there is less chance of applying it in local setting. This is because many parents may not prefer ignoring their childs cry as an appropriate treatment to reduce night awakening period. There is evidence also which have showed that parents strongly resist employing the systematic ignoring approach for their child (Etherton, Blunden and Hauck 2016). Hence, this fact suggest that scheduled awakening might be a better intervention to apply in local setting due its acceptance level among parents compared to systematic ignoring. The limita tion in acceptance of systematic ignoring also suggest that more research work is required to find effective alternative to ignoring that can give positive results too. There is also a need to conduct more research on understanding the mechanism to reinforce positive sleep behavior in children if systematic scheduling technique needs to be applied in the local population Consideration of clinically important outcomes In the context of night awakening problem in children, the most clinically significant outcome was reducing the period of nocturnal awakening and frequency of awakening in children. Rickert and Johnson (1988) proved the efficacy of systematic ignoring and systematic awakening by means of clinical outcomes too. For instance, dramatic improvement in frequency of awakening in children was seen in the systematic ignorance group and the crying episodes were reduced in other intervention group. Hence, clinically also the study is outcome, however focusing on clinical outcome of parents like stress level post intervention would also have enhanced the validity and quality of the study Value of the benefits from research The RCT trial needed both cost and time investment, however this investment was worth the effort because the efficacy of both the interventions for children could be easily judged. The study gave honest response regarding the efficacy of scheduled awakening intervention compared to systematic ignoring on grounds of its viability and acceptance level by parents. However, the only limitation is that its effects are slower and identifying the correct mechanism for this intervention will improve the outcome associated with it. Conclusion: This report highlighted the issue of nocturnal awakening and crying episodes in children and it impact on both parent and childs heath. The critical appraisal of the research by Rickert and Johnson (1988) along with comparison from recent research literature revealed that scheduled awakening is a beneficial strategy to reduce nocturnal awakening time in children. The literature search regarding similar topic also revealed that scheduled awakening is more favorable for reducing sleep problem in children. Hence, after realizing the efficacy of scheduled awakening intervention, it can be said that this intervention should be funded. It is also recommended to improve the mechanism associated with this intervention so that it can be easily implemented in community. More research regarding appropriate mechanism behind scheduled awakening would help to get clinical significant outcome in children and parents. Reference ?rn?ec, R., Matthey, S. and Nemeth, D., 2010. Infant sleep problems and emotional health: a review of two behavioural approaches.Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology,28(1), pp.44-54. Deke, J. and Puma, M., 2013.Coping with missing data in randomized controlled trials. Mathematica Policy Research. Dettori, J., 2010. The random allocation process: two things you need to know.Evidence-based spine-care journal,1(03), pp.7-9. Etherton, H., Blunden, S. and Hauck, Y., 2016. Discussion of extinction-based behavioral sleep interventions for young children and reasons why parents may find them difficult.Journal of clinical sleep medicine: JCSM: official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine,12(11), p.1535. Halal, C.S. and Nunes, M.L., 2014. Education in children's sleep hygiene: which approaches are effective? A systematic review.Jornal de pediatria,90(5), pp.449-456. Higgins, J.P., Altman, D.G., Gtzsche, P.C., Jni, P., Moher, D., Oxman, A.D., Savovi?, J., Schulz, K.F., Weeks, L. and Sterne, J.A., 2011. The Cochrane Collaborations tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials.Bmj,343, p.d5928. Honaker, S.M. and Meltzer, L.J., 2014. Bedtime problems and night wakings in young children: an update of the evidence. accounting respiratory reviews,15(4), pp.333-339. Meltzer, L.J. and Mindell, J.A., 2014. Systematic review and meta-analysis of behavioral interventions for pediatric insomnia.Journal of Pediatric Psychology,39(8), pp.932-948. Price, A.M., Wake, M., Ukoumunne, O.C. and Hiscock, H., 2012. Five-year follow-up of harms and benefits of behavioral infant sleep intervention: randomized trial.Pediatrics,130(4), pp.643-651. Rickert, V.I. and Johnson, C.M., 1988. Reducing nocturnal marketing and crying episodes in infants and young children: a comparison between scheduled awakenings and systematic ignoring.Pediatrics,81(2), pp.203-212. Vriend, J. and Corkum, P., 2011. Clinical management of behavioral insomnia of childhood.Psychology research and behavior management,4, p.69. Werner, H., Hunkeler, P., Benz, C., Molinari, L., Guyer, C., Hfliger, F., Huber, R. and Jenni, O.G., 2015. The Zurich 3-step concept for the management of behavioral sleep disorders in children: a before-and-after study.Journal of clinical sleep medicine: JCSM: official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine,11(3), p.241.